Australian Stock Exchange Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Australian Stock Exchange - Essay Example This is done either to remove risks or to obtain a profit. According to Becket (2012), stock exchange is a public place where a company can sell its shares to investors or where an investor can buy or sell shares to another investor. Australian Stock Exchange is one of such places used for trading stocks. This paper explains an evaluation of this market and discusses the importance of the market to the Australian economy. The Australian Stock Exchange manages all the activities related to trading of shares in Australia. The activities concern both primary and secondary services required by companies and investors in the trading of shares. This includes capital information and hedging, trading and price discovery, risk transfer, and securities settlement (ASX, 2012). This stock exchange has been ranked among the largest in the world in terms of market capitalization. According to Downers and Masci (2003), the Australian Stock Exchange was in the past converted from a mutual organizati on to a company. Due to this, it expanded its regulations and incorporated public interests in its operations. Moreover, it became more accountable to the members of the public. This is because the public is its main owner. One of the major responsibilities of this stock exchange is to distribute necessary information to companies, current shareholders, and potential shareholders. According to Webb and Yu (2004), some of the most crucial information that this company distributes is information about change in shareholding, notices of intended takeovers, and statements of directors’ interests. This information can guide investors in making decisions of whether to trade their stocks or to continue holding them. Moreover, it can guide companies in their decisions to introduce new shares to the markets when seeking funds for expanding. Furthermore, they can guide the company in determining appropriate prices for the shares it intends to introduce in the stock market. Most of this information is conveyed in the form of news articles. However, the Australian Stock Exchange also uses its website to convey information to the public. The information that it conveys through its website ranges from share prices to information on investment education and trading games (Pollard, 2011). This information could also be very crucial to investors, potential investors, and listed companies. The stock exchange coordinates with other stock exchanges of the world – the most important of them are the stock exchanges of the Unites States, United Kingdom, China, Japan, and New Zealand (ASX, 2012). This is because these countries are the Australia’s major trading partners. It organizes the Australian equities to be given exemptions on other foreign equity markets and gives exemptions to foreign equities traded in the Australian equity market. According to Campbell (2008), this stock exchange has offered exemptions to New Zealand equities offered to Australian publi c similar to the ones offered for Australian equities offered in New Zealand. This promotes the flow of capital in and out of this country, which positively affects economic activities in the country. Clear comparison can be drawn between the Australian Stock Exchange and other stock exchanges of the world. This stock exchange is among the most developed ones internationally. As a result, it can be closely compared, for example, with the New York Stock Exchange and

Apology by Plato Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Apology by Plato - Essay Example Socrates on page three denies practicing this type of philosophy, although he does not want to disrespect its practitioners. 2) â€Å"Socrates makes the worse argument into the stronger argument† (Apology,2). Socrates maintains that men of position who are examined by â€Å"young men of the richer classes† (6) who have learned his methods are humiliated. Their response is to slander Socrates: â€Å"Those who are examined by them [the young men] instead of being angry with themselves are angry with me. This confounded Socrates!†¦--and then if somebody asks them, why, what evil does he practice or teach? They do not know†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (6). In order to save face, these men accuse Socrates of sophistry.(6). 3) Socrates is guilty of corrupting the young. I will summarize Socrates’ examination of Meletus concerning this accusation: The laws improve the youth. All of the judges know the laws. Therefore, all the judges improve the youth. All Athenians improve the youth, according to Meletus. Socrates is an Athenian. But, according to Meletus, Socrates alone is their corrupter. This is an invalid argument. If all Athenians improve the youth, and Socrates is an Athenian, then he should also improve the youth. I understand the second argument as follows: It is better to live among good citizens, because they do good. Everyone wants to be treated well. Socrates corrupts the youth intentionally, turning them bad. Bad people do evil. Therefore, Socrates wants to be treated badly. (Apology,7-9). â€Å"But either I do not corrupt them† says Socrates,† or I corrupt them unintentionally†¦If my offence is unintentional, the law has no cognizance of unintentional offenses† (Apology, 9). 4) Socrates does not believe in the gods of the city. Socrates out-argues Meletus on this accusation: M: â€Å"you are a complete atheist† S: â€Å"Do you mean that I do not believe in the godhead of the sun or moon†¦Ã¢â‚¬  M: â€Å"I assure you, judges, that he does not believe in them; for he says that the sun is stone and the moon earth† S: â€Å"you have but a bad opinion of the judges, if you fancy them ignorant to such a degree as not to know that those doctrines are found in the books of Anaxogoras† (Apology,9). The argument continues: S: â€Å"can a man believe in spiritual and divine agencies, and not in spirits or demigods?† M: â€Å"He cannot† S: â€Å"You swear in the indictment that I teach and believe in divine or spiritual agencies†¦but if I believe in divine beings, I must believe in spirits or demigods;--is that not true?† M: â€Å"Yes, that is true† (Apology,10). On the first charge, that of Socrates practicing natural philosophy, I would find not guilty. Socrates is falsely characterized in Aristophanes’ play. He is falsely accused by Meletus of believing that the sun is stone, etc. Meletus did not bother to get his facts straight. The natural philosophers at that time were trying to explain phenomena in terms of quantities that could be studied, i.e.: Anaximenes’ theory that â€Å"all things were made of air through expansion and condensation† (http://www.academic.mu/phil/jonesj/). This type of early scientific inquiry was seen by those in power as a threat to the theocracy. The belief that the gods ruled the earth, and that the politicians could trace their lineage to the gods was a stabilizing force in society. Socrates maintains that God and the gods are wise, and that his actions are dictated by his belief in them. On the second charge, that Socrates makes the worse argument into the stronger argument, I would find not guilty. Socrates does not practice sophistry, which is a form of argument used for persuasion. The Sophists used this form of

Scientific method Essay Example for Free

Scientific method Essay Do we start thinking of some type of formal process that will answer all our scientific questions or problems. When I was in school many years ago, we were taught that scientists go through a series of steps to find a solution to a problem or find evidence to support or disprove a theory. It all seemed rather cold, and formal. Going back to school, school has taught me that science has undergone significant changes and has moved away from the rigidity of a fixed series of steps in what was formerly called the scientific method. The Scientific Method Geophysicists opposed his suggestion that the continents glide across the ocean floor, asserting that the ocean floor did not contain adequate power to hold the continents and moreover considerable frictional opposition would transpire (Nelson, 2003). In the 1950s and in the 1960s, reports of the Planets magnetic field and in what way it varied across time, a study known as, presented different support that would confirm that the continents do definitely move (Nelson, 2003). The method by which an expert discovers clarification to an occurrence is named the scientific method. Tracing the Scientific Method After the experiment, any findings should be analyzed to decide whether the hypothesis was correct, incorrect, or somewhere in-between. In this experiment, which was reported in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (Yamauchi et al, 2010), the researchers sought to find out what relationship, if any, coffee had upon the development of diabetes. Previous studies had indicated that coffee might be of use to ward off the development of diabetes in humans. The scientists behind this experiment wanted to investigate this possibility in a more focused study than had been previously done.: Scientific Research

Examining Islam In Malaysia Religion Essay

Examining Islam In Malaysia Religion Essay Malaysia is modern Muslim country where more than half of its 26 million people have embrace Islam as their religion. Halal is an Islamic religious guide to how Muslims should live their lives from the way their food is prepared to how their personal and social relationships are conducted. In Malaysia Halal is a concept accepted by all, by both Muslims and non- Muslims. The majority of businesses in Malaysia sells products or offer services that are Halal endorsed. The Malaysia Halal Certification is globally respected. In our ever progressive world, it has become increasingly challenging for Muslims to determine whether the food or drinks they consume are religiously acceptable or Halal. This Halal and non-Halal problem is not only limited to food and beverage but also to other products and services. For Muslims living in a totally Islamic country like Saudi Arabia, the Halal question is not an issue at all. For those living in a multiracial Muslim country like Malaysia, although Halal food or services are readily available and easy to obtain, there is a need for the authority to monitor and enforce standards to ensure Halalness particularly when the products or services are made, sold, prepared or provided by non-Muslims. However, the real challenge is for Muslims living in a country whose population is predominantly non-Muslims. Extra diligence is needed for these Muslims to enjoy everything Halal. Most striking is that there are approximately 1.9 billion Muslims in the world who are consumers of Halal foods. As such the Halal food market is the largest food market in the world. Among the Halal importing countries are those which have one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, have the fastest growing middle classes in the world, import a significant proportion of their food needs and have the highest rates of population growth in the world. Malaysia will be developed International Halal Food Hub for monitoring and standardization the Halal food product. The Halal certification will be gives if the food ingredients are Halal. This certification of Malaysia Halal standard are also will be strengthened and aggressively promoted internationally. HALAL BEEF PRODUCT Halal products are fast gaining worldwide recognition as a new benchmark for safety and quality assurance. Products that are produced with Halal certification are readily acceptable by Muslim consumers as well as consumers from other religions. This acceptance is due to the wholesomeness concept of Halal, which covers not only the Shariah requirement, but also the hygiene, sanitation and safety aspects. Halal certification is a powerful marketing tool for both the Muslim and non-Muslim producers, as there are an increasing awareness on the part of Muslim consumers all over the world on their obligation to consume Halal food. The Arabic word(Halal) means lawful or permitted. In the Holy Quran, Allah commands Muslims and all of mankind to eat of the Halal things. Basically, Allah Al Mighty knows what is best for us to eat. And normally all the Halal food are very clean and safe from any disease. But for non-Halal food, you always can find some interesting facts relating to sickness. This following products are definitely Halal such as milk (from cows, sheep, camels, and goats), honey, fish, plants which are not intoxicant, fresh or dried fruits, legumes nuts like peanut, cashew nuts, hazel nuts, walnut, grain such as wheat, rice, rye, barley, and oat. Basically, all food is Halal except meat from swine such as pork, ham, pork-based products and by-products such as sausages and gelatin. Animals improperly slaughtered or already dead before slaughtering is due to take place. Animals killed in the name of anyone other than Allah (for example, by anyone other than a Jew, Christian or Muslim, or as part of a pagan sacrifice), intoxicants, blood and blood by-products, foods contaminated with any of the above products. Most of the desserts use non-Halal Gelatin that comes from pigs. Focus about the beef, they are only Halal if they are slaughtered according to Islamic Law. The procedures that we must do at the beef are the animal must be slaughtered by a Muslim. The animal also should be put down on the ground or held it if it is small. The throat of the animal must be sliced with a very sharp knife to make sure that the 3 main blood vessels are cut. While cutting the throat of the animal (without severing it), the person must pronounce the name of Allah or recite a blessing which contains the name of Allah, such as Bismillahirahmannirrahim, Allah-u-Akbar. Islam prohibits the meat of animals that are slaughtered without reciting the name of Allah and those that are slaughtered whilst pronouncing a name other than Allah. Mentioning the name of Allah during slaughter is actually a way of seeking permission from God for taking the life of the animal for the sole purpose of sustenance. The prohibition to recite a name other than Allah during slaughter acts as a safe guard to a Muslims faith. Islam is a religion which promotes monotheism and rejects any form of polytheism. Mentioning a name other than Allah is regarded as a polytheistic act, thus such act is not permissible during slaughter. For more information, they lead the cow into an area, line its head up with where the piston comes out, and BAM! The cow is unconscious, hung by its ankles, and sent to where the slaughter takes place. Regarding poultry, a common practice is to render them unconscious by electrocuting them before slaughter. Slaughtering is to be done from the front of the neck, between the throat and the head of the breast bone (Libba). The throat/oesophagus (Mirree), windpipe/trachea (Halkoom) and the two jugular veins (Wadijan) are cut in the neck without severing the spinal cord. This cut severed the arteries to the brain of the animal, thus depriving the brain of blood supply. As a result, the brain loses consciousness due to insufficient oxygen. This renders the animal unconscious, causing the animal the least amount of pain.   By contrast, the Islamic method of slaughtering does not allow for animals to be killed in front of other animals. It requires an extremely sharp blade and the swift incision of the major veins in the neck to facilitate in a painless, quick blood loss and death. Before the slaughter takes place, the animal is examined for overall health. If the animal is deemed unhealthy, it cannot be slaughtered for food. The animal is slaughtered in such a way that most of the blood exits the body. The goal is to slaughter the animal, limiting the amount of pain the animal will endure. DEPARTMENT OF ISLAMIC DEVELOPMENT MALAYSIA (JAKIM) HISTORY In 1968, the Conference of Rulers Pakistan has decided that the need for a body to mobilize efforts for development and advancement of the Muslims in Malaysia, in line with Malaysias status as an Islamic country that has strong international and world attention. Recognizing this, a secretariat to the National Council of Religious Affairs was established, to maintain the purity of faith and the teachings of Islam. Secretariat was subsequently developed as the Religious Department of the Prime Minister who was later promoted again to the Islamic Affairs Department (BAHEIS). On January 1, 1997, in line with the development and progress of Islam in the country has stabilized, the Department of Islamic Development Malaysia (JAKIM) is established by the Malaysian government took power and the role (BAHEIS). FUNCTION OF JAKIM Formulation and standardization of Islamic law Formulate, review and amend laws for the standardization of Islamic states. Streamline and standardize the Islamic law throughout Pakistan. Act enacts Islamic law and the federal territories. Enforcement of Islamic law states Coordinating the implementation and compliance ruling. Coordination in the administration of Islam Streamline the administration of Islamic affairs and the states. Build a strong Islamic thought among Muslims based on the holding of the Sunnah Wal Jamaah. Produce cadres Islamic preachers and scholars through training in training institutions of Islam. Establishing benchmarks and practices of Islam through the formulation of service standards Hadhari Referral centers and advisory services relating to Islam government and private agencies. Increasing collaboration with the missionary network non-governmental bodies at national and international Strengthening survival of Muslims in Sabah and Sarawak in educational, missionary and social-economic Strengthening unity among Muslims to the Ummah. To empower the non-Muslim, indigenous peoples and minority groups. Expand the program and plans Islamic through radio and television stations. Expanding the program elements of Islamic values and personality to deal with social ills. Coordination and development of Islamic education Developing a team of experts in various fields of Islamic knowledge. Make Malaysia a hub for higher education and research al-Quran and al-hadith in regional and international levels. Develop and coordinate the management of the state religious school of Islamic education and Islamic schools. Develop and coordinate programs and classes al-Quran mass Ain (Kafa) in the current national education policy. Strengthening the role of institutions and programs prosperity mosque as a center of science and civilization of the community development that involves all walks of life. WHY ISLAM FORBIDS PORK Pork is the most commonly eaten forms of meat around the world, there are over 100 million metric tons of pork is consumed throughout the world. And pork can be served in different forms such as cooked or form of sausages. However, we know that Islam not eating pork but what is the reason they forbids pork. So now, we go to discuss about it. We know that food and drink have a direct effect on our health. That is why Islam prevents to unhealthy food. Because they believe both physical and moral health are equally important for a healthy society. Therefore, the abstention from eating pork is one of the steps taken by Islam to practice hygiene and to attain purity of soul. To cultivate our inner faculties, Islam insists upon the cleanliness of body and the purification of soul through Salaat (prayers), Zikr (remembrance of Allah) and other devotional duties. Islam teaches us how to attain the virtues and how to give up bad habits because both good and bad grow in the man according to his upbringing, education and environment. A human being has natural desires: food, sleep and sex being the three primary ones. He has also natural emotions: sorrow, happiness, love, fear, disgust and avarice etc. Islam doesnt recommend the complete abrogation of these impulses but offers a method of controlling them through religious education and discipline. The prohibition of eating pork in Islam is relevant in this context. There is a saying in English that a man becomes what he eats. According to physicians and medical experts, pork is a harmful diet. Consumption of swine-flesh creates lowliness in character and destroys moral and spiritual faculties in a man. Despite Islam allows Muslims to eat clean thing. However, in the consumption of meat, Muslims are required to be selective and distinguish the Halal foods. Dr. E. Kazim. M.D, in his article Medical aspects of forbidden foods in Islam (July 1981 issue of Muslim Journal) has described diseases carried or caused by the flesh of swine. He writes: The pig is a scavenger. It is an omnivorous animal. It eats everything. There are many diseases carried from swine to man, particularly parasite infestations. Lately extensive research has been focused on senility-old age is characterized by hardening of inner lining of the blood vessels of the heart, brain etc. a process called atherosclerosis. When a clot forms, it results in coronary thrombosis or a heart attack, cerebral thrombosis or stroke. Dr. Glen Shepherd wrote the following on the dangers of eating pork in Washington Post (31 May 1952): One in six people in USA and Canada have germs in their muscles trichinosis 8 from eating pork infected with trichina worms. Many people who are infected show no symptoms. Most of those, who do have, recover slowly. Some die; some are reduced to permanent invalids. All were careless pork caters. He continued: No one is immune from the disease and there is no cure. Neither antibiotics nor drugs or vaccines affect these tiny deadly worms. Preventing infection is the real answer. After reading the statement of Dr. Shepherd, one can realize that there is no real guarantee of safety when eating pork that one would not be affected by trichina worm. That is why modern doctors advise three prohibitions during illness: no liquor, no pork and no smoking. At the end we know that Muslim forbids pork because they respect their religion. They believe their GOD will care for them. But if they are under famine, they still can eat pork to survive, its no sin. CONCLUSION At the end, we found that Halal food have many benefits and thats why many people either Muslim or non Muslims, would like to choose Halal food. Halal meat is beneficial for nutrition and health. Only healthy animals can be slaughtered. It is done by Muslims who are trusted and experienced. The meat itself will have no blood clots within the veins-giving it a longer shelf life. Animals will be treated with mercy and respect and will be blessed with the name of God (Allah) prior to slaughter. Ethnic and religious considerations are not the only reasons why consumers are choosing kosher- and Halal-certified foods. Many perceive the extra supervision implicit in the certified foods assures higher quality and safer food products. According to Packaged Facts report, Market Trend: Kosher- and Halal-Certified Foods in the US, resonates with a similar report from Mintel released earlier this year, which concluded that the majority of US consumers who buy kosher foods do so for perceived quality and safety reasons, rather than for religious ones, and there is no reason to assume things are any different in Australia and New Zealand. They study found that three in five people who buy kosher food do so because they perceive it to be better quality, Halal food also have a lot of nutrition and they feel safe to eat it, and it free from any disease other that, availability to get Halal food is easier. The two most popular markets for Halal food are South-East Asia and the Middle East. By going through the Halal certification process, food processors will open up the possibility of additional clientele and often they will not even have to make changes to their product to get such certification. There are four steps in processing of Halal food that is: application, submission, processing certification and post certification. And whats the important in the steps of processing is certification attests that a product/service is suitable for Muslims and finished products which adhere to Halal manufacturing procedures carry a Halal symbol on the label. We know that all equipment used in the production of Halal foods must be free from contamination with non-Halal items and comply with the necessary hygiene and sanitation requirements. All ingredients must all be Halal as well. Favorable perceptions Many consumers believe that Halal and kosher food is produced under stricter supervision than is provided by government inspection and for many consumers the Halal and kosher symbols guarantee that the food is free of contaminants or disease and no preservatives added. The research indicated that more than half of consumers who purchased kosher products did so because they considered them to be safer than products not certified as kosher. Mintels research has shown that kosher was the most frequently used claim on food and drink products launched in the US in 2008 which, as the Jewish population is not increasing, suggests that the growing interest may be more to do with food safety than religion. Aside from religious requirements, kosher and Halal supervision adds another level of quality control in responding to the needs of the discerning consumer. Simply by adhering to the kosher and Halal requirements and having foods certified, processors will broaden their market.

Strategy vs Structure in Strategic Management

Strategy vs Structure in Strategic Management Strategic analysis: Strategy versus Structure for International Competitiveness Introduction The strategy structure relationship, that was previously considered reciprocal, is now recognized as being considerably more complex, and there is some agreement that structure can and does have a profound impact on strategy through its direct effect on the strategic decision making process (Bourgeois Astley, 1979; Burgelman, 1983; Fredrickson, 1986). In understanding the role of strategy and structure in international business, one must understand that what has essentially changed is the context within which business operations take place. The well developed and complex associations between structure and strategy in classical studies of firms are also central to research in international business, but the nature of business has changed, and so have the relationships. As such, issues have arisen over the best way for international firms, operating in global marketplaces, to best align their strategy and structure to serve numerous distinct markets, whilst maintaining a global identi ty. This paper looks at the development of business strategy and structure over time, highlighting how the relationships have changed, the implications for organisational behaviour, and how firms can alter their behaviour to best gain competitive advantage in international markets. International Strategies Business strategy refers to how firms compete in an industry or market (Varadarajan and Clark 1994; Walker and Ruekert 1987). The two historically dominant frameworks of business strategy are the Miles and Snow (1978) model, which focuses on intended rate of product-market change, and the Porter (1980) model, which focuses on customers and competitors. Miles and Snow (1978) developed a comprehensive framework that addresses the alternative ways that organisations define and approach their product-market domains and construct structures and processes to achieve competitive advantage in those domains. Miles and Snow identify four archetypes of how firms address these issues: â€Å"prospectors† continuously attempt to locate and exploit new product and market opportunities, â€Å"defenders† attempt to seal off a portion of the total market to create a stable set of products and customers, â€Å"analyzers† occupy an intermediate position by cautiously following prosp ectors into new product-market domains while protecting a stable set of products and customers, and â€Å"reactors† do not have a consistent response to the entrepreneurial problem. In contrast, Porter (1980) proposes that business strategy should be viewed as a product of how the firm creates customer value compared with its competitors, and how it defines its scope of market coverage. Walker and Ruekert (1987) observed that though each of these strategy typologies has inherent strengths, i.e., Porters external focus and Miles and Snows internal focus, each is also limited. To address this, Walker and Ruekert proposed a hybrid model that synthesizes the two foci in a typology that consists of prospectors, low-cost defenders, and differentiated defenders. However, although Walker and Ruekert’s article has been frequently cited in the marketing and management literature, the distinctions between low-cost defenders and differentiated defenders have only recently been supported in empirical analysis (Slater and Olson, 2001). Following on from these initial developments, over the last few years researchers have quite successfully addressed and explicated the various forms of international strategy, and these forms are generally well accepted in the literature. There is now considerable agreement among international business scholars that most firms embarking upon or undertaking international business operations are cognizant of the twin pressures of global integration and local responsiveness. To this end, the integration-responsiveness framework suggested by Prahalad and Doz (1987) has provided a valuable theoretical tool to better understand international strategic behaviours of firms. More recently, we have seen many successful applications of globally integrated strategies (Parente, 2003; Parente Kotabe, 2003). According to Yip (2003), global companies have developed more sophisticated and flexible versions of international strategies and organisational processes, which successfully embraced globaliz ation. Organisational Structures Organisational structure refers to an organisation’s internal pattern of relationships (Finley, 2000). Structure has been characterized by a number of dimensions and illustrated by using a variety of types, like functional or divisional (Fredrickson 1986), however, there are three dimensions of structure: centralization, formalization, and complexity, which have received more attention than any others (Fry, 1982; Fry Slocum, 1984). Each of these dimensions appears to have great implications for strategy and strategic decision making, and are dominant characteristics of the well known structural types (Fredrickson, 1986). Centralization refers to the degree to which the right to make decisions and evaluate activities is concentrated (Fry Slocum, 1984; Hall, 1977). A high level of centralization is the most obvious way to control and coordinate organisation decision making, but places significant cognitive demands on those managers who retain authority (Fredrickson, 1986). Min tzberg (1979) has discussed this issue by suggesting that an individual does not have the cognitive capacity or information that is needed to understand all the decisions that face a complex organisation. The degree of formalization specifies the extent to which an organisation uses rules and procedures to prescribe behaviour (Hage Aiken, 1969; Hall, 1977). Therefore, formalization has significant consequences for organisational members because it specifies how, where, and by whom tasks are to be performed (Fredrickson, 1986). A high level of formalization has the benefit of eliminating role ambiguity, but it also limits members’ decision making discretion. Complexity refers to the condition of being composed of many, usually, though not necessarily, interrelated parts. Hall (1977) suggests that there are three sources of complexity: horizontal and vertical differentiation, and spatial dispersion. Therefore, an organisation that simultaneously has numerous levels, broad spans of control, and multiple geographic locations would be considered as highly complex (Fredrickson, 1986). The Interaction Between Strategy and Structure Whilst strategy and structure have been studied in isolation for a great many years, and are now relatively well understood, what is less understood is the international role of organisational structure and its relationship with international strategy (Finley, 2000). International strategies are the forms and types of actions firms follow to fulfil their long term business objectives. Organisations involved in international business activities usually have two major forces impinging on them. One is the need to standardise products on a global basis, and the other is to respond to local country or local market demands. International strategies may be characterized in different ways, and the integration-responsiveness framework developed by Prahalad and Doz (1987) has extended the conceptualization of industry pressures to incorporate generic strategic responses. The framework suggests that organisations develop their strategies and structures based on the emphasis they place on either one or both forces. At the most basic level, organisational structures are established to coordinate work that has been divided into smaller tasks. Mintzberg (1981, p. 104) noted, â€Å"How that coordination is achievedby whom and with whatdictates what the organisation will look like.† Walker and Ruekert (1987) further hypothesized that firms that follow different generic business strategies adopt different structural designs. Vorhies and Morgan (2003) studied the relationships among marketing organisation structure, business strategy, and performance in the trucking industry. Both of these studies demonstrated that different marketing organisation characteristics are more or less appropriate for different business strategies. The forms of structures typically defined by formalization, centralization, and specialization, which as Walker and Ruekert (1987 p. 27) noted â€Å"seem particularly important in shaping an organisation’s or departments performance†, are also applicable in d ifferent ways to different strategies and geographic factors. For example, in studying the development of America’s dominant industrial organisations, Chandler (1962) observed that major increases in unit volume, geographic dispersion, and vertical and horizontal integration were eventually followed by changes in structural form. Several studies following Chandler’s work confirmed an association between these two variables, in that structure generally followed strategy (Fouraker Stopford, 1968; Rumelt, 1974). In spite of the wide spread acceptance of the structure follows strategy relationship, there is a significant body of literature that suggests that structure has a significant and major effect on strategy (Fredrickson, 1986). Bower, for example, characterized structure broadly as the context within which decisions are made, and observed that â€Å"structure may motivate or impede strategic activity† (1970, p. 67). This view is also supported by other researchers who contend that structure constrains, or in another set of circumstances, enables, strategic choice (Bobbitt Ford, 1980; Duncan, 1979; Hedberg, Nystrom Starbuck, 1976). To understand why it is logical for strategic action to be affected by structure, one must understand the relationship between decision making and structure (Fredrickson, 1986). March and Simon (1958) addressed this critical aspect of the relationship by suggesting that an organisation’s structure imposes boundaries of rationality that accommodate members’ cognitive limitations. By delimiting responsibilities and communication channels, structure allows organisations to achieve organisationally rational outcomes despite their cognitive limitations (Simon, 1976). Structure also allows management to control the decision making environment and facilitate the processing of information (Fredrickson, 1986). The structure-strategy relationship is well explained by Bower when he states that â€Å"when management chooses a particular organisational form, it is providing not only a framework for current operations but also the channels along which strategic information will flow † (1970, p. 287). As a result, the relationships between business strategy and organisational structure become massively complex when considered in the international context, and thus require organisations to strategically examine their fundamental behaviours in order to best align their strategy and structure, without becoming lost in the complexity. Strategic Organisational Behaviour Organisational behaviour refers to organisational members’ work-related activities (Ouchi 1977; Robbins 2002) and, according to Snell (1992), management attempts to influence organisational behaviour through the use of control systems. Control is any process that helps align employees actions with the firm’s interests (Snell 1992; Tannenbaum 1968). Control theory (Snell 1992) identifies three major categories of control mechanisms: behavioural control (e.g., establishing and monitoring of sets of actions), output control (e.g., goal attainment measures), and input control (e.g., training). When applied within an organisational context, control theory posits that management attempts to direct employee behaviour to enhance the probability of desired outcomes. As Snell notes (p. 292), â€Å"Advocates of the behavioural perspective posit that different strategies require different behaviours.† Snell also notes that this view of the link between strategy and behaviour is useful because it provides a clear explanation of why behaviour should be linked to strategy and because it posits a testable set of behaviours. As a result, strategic behaviours have the potential to create superior performance through enhancing the execution of business strategy and identifying the relevant organisational structure (Slater and Narver 1995). There are four behaviours which are all claimed to offer potential competitive advantage to firms. These are customer-oriented behaviours (Deshpandà ©, Farley, and Webster 1993), competitor-oriented behaviours (Armstrong and Collopy 1996), innovation-oriented behaviours (Hurley and Hult 1998), and internal/cost-oriented behaviours (Porter 1980). It is important to understand that these strategic behaviours are not mutually exclusive and that it is common for firms to engage in multiple sets of behaviours simultaneously (Slater and Narver 1995). Furthermore, different combinations of emphases will likely prove more or less beneficial for firms that adopt different business strategies. Customer-Oriented Behaviours Firms with a strong customer orientation pursue competitive advantage by placing the highest priority on the creation and maintenance of customer value. As such, these firms engage in the organisation wide development of and responsiveness to information about the expressed and unexpressed needs of both current and potential customers (Deshpandà ©, Farley, and Webster 1993). Because of the constantly refined market-sensing and customer-relating capabilities of the customer-oriented firm, it should develop strategies and a structure to anticipate customer need evolution and to respond through the development of new customer value-focused capabilities and the addition of valuable products and services (Day 1994). Competitor-Oriented Behaviours A different perspective on competitive advantage is simply to beat the competition (Day 1994). This orientation places a priority on the in-depth assessment of a set of targeted competitors, focusing on targeted competitors goals, strategies, offerings, resources, and capabilities (Porter 1980) and on the organisation wide dissemination of the information generated from this assessment. The result is that managers develop competitor-oriented objectives rather than economic or customer-oriented objectives (Armstrong and Collopy 1996). The behavioural goal of the firm is to match, if not exceed, competitors strengths, both in strategy and structure. Innovation-Oriented Behaviours Another perspective is that firms build and renew competitive advantage through radical or discontinuous innovations. An innovation orientation indicates that the firm not only is open to new ideas but also proactively pursues these ideas (Hurley and Hult 1998) in both its technical and administrative domains An innovation orientation encourages risk taking and enhances the likelihood of developing radically new products. March (1991) argues that firms must be aware of the possibility that an innovation orientation may not allow for the follow-through that is necessary to reap the benefits of earlier innovations fully, unless their strategy and structure are aligned with both the generation and utilisation of innovation. Internal/Cost-Oriented Behaviours Porter (1980) argues that there are two basic sources of competitive advantage. The first is the differentiation advantage that a firm derives from the customer-, competitor-, or innovation-oriented behaviours. The second is the cost advantage that a firm derives from internal orientation and structure, with internally oriented firms pursuing efficiency in all parts of their value chain (Porter 1985). They attempt to reduce costs in primary activities, such as logistics, operations, and sales and marketing, and also attempt to reduce costs in support activities, such as procurement, research and development, and administrative functions. These firms pursue operational excellence, through their strategy and structure, that they can translate into higher sales through lower prices or higher margins. Whereas experimentation is the hallmark of firms with an innovation orientation, exploitation is the hallmark of internally oriented firms (March 1991). Conclusion International business has produced some incredibly competitive and complicated markets, with numerous potential problems for organisations, but also numerous opportunities for firms that can best adapt to their marketplace. However, such is the level of complexity in these markets, that firms who try to engineer specific, rigid strategies and structures will likely find themselves left behind by the latest shift in the market or technology. As a result, firms competing in international markets would be best advised to focus on the organisational behaviour, or behaviours, that best match their capabilities, and let these behaviours drive their strategy and structure to provide the most sustainable competitive advantage possible. Unfortunately, there is currently a paucity of available academic evidence on the most relevant behaviours for firms to best secure competitive advantage under the myriad market conditions, and this should be a key area for future research, as it may soon bec ome a strategic issue of significant importance. Equally, organisational behaviour as a field of study is vastly complex, with ongoing debates between theorists around organistic versus mechanistic structures, the role of teams, and the best styles of leadership needed in an organisation. In particular, organisational behaviour tends to suggest that organistic structures will be required in uncertain, rapidly changing markets, however mechanistic structures will be required in markets where the pace of technological developments is slower (Burns and Stalker, 1961). Thus, more research is needed into the consequences of an organisation in a relatively fast moving market making strategic organisational behaviour choices which would be better facilitated by a more hierarchical, mechanistic structure. Similar research would be recommended into the roles of leaders, and teams within organisations, in implementing and driving these behaviours forward. However, regardless of the need for further research, it is clear that firms can no longer merely define a strategy, focus strongly on it, and expect their strategic focus to guarantee success. Likewise, in the international business world, firms should no longer focus on having a well defined structure, regardless of whether it is organistic or mechanistic. Instead, a key recommendation of the strategic organisational behaviour approach is that firms should concentrate on best aligning themselves to the most appropriate behaviour for their industry. In manufacturing, this is likely to be more internal, or cost oriented, in technology it will tend to be primarily innovation oriented and in professional services a strong customer, or client, orientation would be best. However, it is vital that firms do not neglect the other behaviours: those that are not their primary focus, as these remain important, and can help maintain a balance approach to strategy and structure, offering sustained competitive advantage in international markets. References Armstrong, J. S. and Collopy, F. (1996) Competitor Orientation: Effects of Objectives and Information on Managerial Decisions and Profitability. Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 33, May Issue, p. 188. Bobbitt, H. R. and Ford, J.D. (1980) Decision maker choice as a determinant of organisation structure. Academy of Management Review, Vol. 5, p. 13. Bourgeois, L. J. and Astley, W. G. (1979) A strategic model of organisational conduct and performance. International Studies of Management and Organisation, Vol. 6, Issue 3, p. 40. Bower, J. L. (1970) Managing the resource allocation process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Burgelman, R. A. (1983) A model of the interaction of strategic behaviour, corporate con-text, and the concept of strategy. Academy of Management Review, Vol. 8: p. 61. Burns, T. and Stalker, G (1961) The Management of Innovation. London: Tavi-stock. Chandler, A. D. (1962) Strategy and structure: Chapters in the history of the American industrial enterprise. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 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(1982) Technology-structure research: Three critical issues. Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 25, p. 532. Hage, J. and Aiken, M. (1969) Routing technology, social structure and organisational goals. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 14, p. 368. Hall, R. H. (1977) Organisations: Structures and processes. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall. Hedberg, B. L. T. Nystrom, P.C. and Starbuck, W. (1976) Camping on seesaws: Prescriptions for a self-designing organisation. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 21, p. 41. Hurley, R. F. and Hult, G. T. M. (1998) Innovation, Market Orientation, and Organisational Learning: An Integration and Empirical Examination. Journal of Marketing; Vol. 62, July Issue, p. 42. March, J. G. (1991) Exploration and Exploitation in Organisational Learning. Organisation Science, Vol. 2, Issue 1, p. 71. March, J. G. and Simon, H. A. (1958) Organisations. New York, NY: Wiley. Miles, R. E. and Snow, C. C. (1978) Organisational, Strategy, Structure, and Process. New York: McGraw-Hill. Mintzberg, H. (1981) Organisation Design: Fashion or Fit? Harvard Business Review, Vol. 59, Issue 1, p. 103. Mintzberg, H. (1979) The structuring of organisations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Ouchi, W. G. (1977) The Relationship Between Organisational Structure and Organisational Control. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 20, Issue 1, p. 95. Parente, R. (2003) Strategic modularization in the Brazilian automobile industry: An empirical analysis of its antecedents and performance implications. Doctoral Dissertation, Temple University, August 2003. Parente, R. and Kotabe, M. (2003) Strategic modularization, evolution of sourcing strategies, and performance implications. Proceedings Academy of International Business; Monterey, CA. Porter, M. E. (1980) Competitive Strategy. New York: The Free Press. Prahalad, C. K. and Doz, Y. L. (1987) The multinational mission. New York, NY: Free Press. Robbins, S. P. (2002), Organisational Behavior, 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Rumelt, R. P. (1974) Strategy, structure and economic performance. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Simon, H. A. (1976) Administrative behaviour (third edition). New York, NY: Free Press. Slater, S. and Narver, J. (1993) Product-Market Strategy and Performance: An Analysis of the Miles and Snow Strategy Types European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 27, Issue 10, p. 33. Slater, S. and Olson, E. M. (2000) Strategy Type and Performance: The Influence of Sales Force Management Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 21, Issue 8, p. 813. Snell, S. (1992) Control Theory in Strategic Human Resource Management: The Mediating Effect of Administrative Information. Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 35, Issue 2, p. 292. Tannenbaum, A. S. (1968) Control in Organisations. New York: McGraw-Hill. Walker, O. C. and Ruekert, R. W. 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A Twiggy Image Essay -- Essays Papers

A Twiggy Image 1. Not merely handled as a precious package, but portrayed as one. Physically, she fit the part. Her hair was bobbed short to her jaw and always slicked down, parted from one side across to the other. It was a soft blonde; perhaps the only soft thing about her as the rest of her body met at sharp angles and was marked with dark lines. The skin appeared silky, unblemished and unwrinkled, still glowing with the youth of seventeen years. The eyes that met yours were large and dark, a very dramatic appeal. The lashes were fake; long and thick layers outlining the sunken pupils. Her lips sat pursed between a perfectly pointed nose and chin. This face graced the cover of Life , Look , Newsweek , Vogue , and Seventeen and filled pages within numerous American magazines and newspapers. The body that supported such a face stood as the foundation for fame and the force driving the photos. Measuring five-feet six inches from her blond head to her trendy shoed toes, she was lanky. At only ninet y-one pounds, the long limbs were nothing but flesh and bone. Knobby knees and jutting elbows made graceful movements angular. Flat. No breasts curved out from her torso and no buttocks rounded from her back. She was shapeless, asexual. Thus, she was distinctive; no one before had looked quite like her. She was the â€Å"It Girl,† who resembled an adolescent boy. She was England's â€Å"Face of ‘66† (Whiteside 87). And when she stepped off of the airplane at JFK International Airport in New York in 1967, Twiggy became a â€Å"universal heroine for teenagers† (Whiteside 54). 2. In 1967, America was hit with its newest trend—Twiggy. She emerged suddenly, appearing with the wink of a darkly lined and thickly lashed eye. Twiggy's impact, how... ...nda Benn. â€Å"This Year's Girl: A Personal/Critical History of Twiggy.† On Fashion . Ed. Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994. 41-58. Freeman, Jo. â€Å"The Women's Liberation Movement: Its Origins, Structures and Ideas.† 23 April 2003 . Lawson, Twiggy. Twiggy in Black and White: An Autobiography . London: Pocket Books, 1997. Twiggy. Twiggy . London: Hart-Davis, Mac Gibbon, 1975. Whiteside, Thomas. Twiggy and Justin . New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1968. Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society . New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. - - -, Marxism and Literature . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are used Against Women . New York: Doubleday, 1991. 9-19, 179-217.

the flea :: essays research papers

WzDD's HSC Info: 2Unit Related English: John Donne The Flea Marke but this flea, and marke in this, How little that which thou deny'st me is; Me it suck'd first, and now sucks thee, And in this flea our two bloods mingled bee; Confesse it, this cannot be said A sinne, or shame, or losse of maidenhead, Yet this enjoyes before it wooe, And pamper'd swells with one blood made of two, And this, alas, is more than wee would doe. Oh stay, three lives in one flea spare, When we almost, nay more than maryed are. This flea is you and I, and this Our marriage bed, and marriage temple is; Though parents grudge, and you, w'are met, And cloysterd in these living walls of Jet. Though use make thee apt to kill me, Let not to this, selfe murder added bee, And sacrilege, three sinnes in killing three. Cruell and sodaine, has thou since Purpled thy naile, in blood of innocence? In what could this flea guilty bee, Except in that drop which it suckt from thee? Yet thou triumph'st, and saist that thou Find'st not thyself, nor mee the weaker now; 'Tis true, then learne how false, feares bee; Just so much honor, when thou yeeld'st to mee, Will wast, as this flea's death tooke life from thee. Glossary Jet - a deep, glossy black stone. This is of course a reference to the colour of a flea, and is especially strong imagery when one compares the lifeless stone with the "living walls". Sodaine - violent. Overall explanation My copy of the poem notes that "Fleas were a popular subject for jocose[humorous] and amatory[love] poetry in all countries at the Renaissance". Their popularity stems from an event that happened in a literary salon (a place where poets and others came to recite poetry and converse). The salon was run by two ladies, and on on occassion a flea happened to land upon one lady's breast. The poets were amazed at the creature's audacity, and were inspired to write poetry about the beast. It soon became fashionable among poets to write poems about fleas. In this poem, the "I" of the poem is lying in bed with his lover, and trying to get her to give her virginity to him. (It could, of course, quite easily be a FEMALE "I" trying to seduce a MALE, but I will stick with one for convenience). While lying there, he notices a flea, which has obviously bitten them both.