Saturday, August 31, 2019
Learning Theories Essay
This chapter takes a brief look at the two major categories of learning theories (behaviorism and constructivism), the major theorists within those categories, and the implications of those theories for the use of multimedia and communications and information technology for learning purposes. A separate section within the chapter provides a brief overview of learning based upon neuroscience and recent discoveries about the functioning of the brain. A series of links are provided to further resources on learning theory, neuroscience, and the brain. pic] Our Technological Revolution and the Implications for the Way We Learn We have all experienced a learning moment when we were so focussed or engulfed in the learning, that everything else did not matter. Candidly, the raison d’etre or motivation for our focus may have been that we had a boss or teacher breathing down our neck or an impending exam was to quantify our level of knowledge or intelligence or a particular moment neces sitated that a skill be learned very quickly. Regardless of the motivating factors for this moment of focussed learning, the experience is what psychologists Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi and Ellen Langer label in their respective theories, as moments of â€Å"optimum flow†or â€Å"mindfulness†. According to psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, optimum flow occurs when: Alientation gives way to involvement, enjoyment replaces boredom, helplessness turns into a feeling of control, and psychic energy works to reinforce the sense of self, instead of being lost in the service of external goals. (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 9) Replicating such moments of optimum flow is the job of educators regardless of the domain, whether it be school, the workplace in job training, or the military, etc. Moreover, certain learning theorists are advocating the greater use of technology, namely computers, in learning situations because they see enormous potential of computer technology to replicate these optimum moments of flow. Learning is a personal act. We each place our own personal stamp on how we learn, what we learn and when we learn. We in effect have our own learning style. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences which acknowledges learning as an holistic experience is, at present, one of the most well known descriptors of human cognitive profiles. The act of learning is paradoxical in nature. It can at times appear to be a very simple act. So simple, that we do not question its presence in how we go about our daily activities, for it is natural to our existence as learning organisms. Yet, when we encounter difficulties in learning something, we no longer take the learning process for granted. It is only then that our metacognition or awareness of how we learn is heightened. Learning is taken for granted as a natural process. As simple a process it may seem, the root of understanding how we learn is not as straight forward. The existence of numerous definitions and theories of learning attest to the complexity of this process. A random sampling of any educational psychology text will illustrate the variance in views to what exactly is learning and how we do learn. In Educational Psychology: An Introduction, for example, the authors write, â€Å"Learning implies a change in the individual as a result of some intervention. It may be viewed as an outcome or as a process. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 211) While this definition reflects a behaviorist view of learning, for it equates learning as an outcome, it is a starting point for the authors to expand their description of learning into many other realms, namely the different theories of learning. They in effect, devote a whole chapter of their text just to describe the many ways of defining learning. While it may seem somewhat premature to evaluate the aforementioned definition of learning and to equate it with a specific theory, it is important to recognize that â€Å"intervention†in the learning process can imply many different things. The degree of intervention, by who or what and how, are the defining factors of a learning theory. These factors help distinguish the many different theories. As you will see these theories are not stagnant. They are evolving and changing as we discover new ways of viewing human cognition. â€Å"The mechanistic model of the mind of the behavior era has given way to the logical-computational model favored by artificial intelligence and cognitive science theorists†(McLellan, 1996, p. 6). Don Tapscott, in his book Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation, argues that we are now in a digital era of learning. According to Tapscott, a transformation in learning is taking place from what he labels â€Å"broadcast†learning to â€Å"interactive†learning. No longer are today’s generation of learners satisfied in being the passive recipients of the traditional teaching process, rather, they want to discover it for themselves by becoming interactive with the learning. The net generation children using GlobaLearn [a web site], are beginning to process information and learn differently than the boomers before them. New media tools offer great promise for a new model of learning – one based on discovery and participation. (Tapscott, 1998, p. 127) Tapscott’s thesis that the â€Å"technological revolution†is permeating every aspect of our lives forces us to examine the use of computer technology as learning devices. Such rapid social, economic and general lifestyle change, due in essence to the technological revolution, begs the question – based on learning theory, why does the use of computers as a â€Å"learning†tool make sense? This chapter will answer this question by profiling the many learning theories. [pic] The Spectrum of Learning Theories As a review of the literature of learning theories will illustrate there are many labels being used to describe the many theories. Moreover, there are many theorists associated with each approach. A categorization of these labels and theorists will help in understanding these fundamental theories. The spectrum of learning theories consists of many approaches or ways of explaining how humans learn. A description of each of these theories will suffice in providing you with enough knowledge to critically examine the use of computer technology as a learning device. The resume of each theory will consist of: †¢ the associated names of the theory †¢ a description of the theory †¢ theorists associated with the theory †¢ hyperlinks on the World Wide Web Diagram #1: The two extremes Behaviorism                                                        Constructivism The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by respectively, the Behaviorist and Constructivist theories of learning. As theories trying to explain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their respective views of how knowledge is acquired and the intervention of tools of learning (teachers or instructors). As a context to better understand all of the theories of learning presented in this chapter, examine these two extremes first and then place the remaining theories onto the spectrum. [pic] Behaviorism The Associated Names of this Theory: Behaviorism labelled as a teaching approach is often referred to as directed instruction. As you compare this theory with the Constructivist view of learning, this label will become self-evident. Also in contrast to Constructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning. Theorists associated with Behaviorism: J. B Watson E. L Thorndike B. F Skinner A Description of Behaviorism: The concern or emphasis of Behaviorism is observable indicators that learning is taking place. Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the mental processes of the mind. Behaviorists do not deny the existence of these mental processes. In fact, they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of learning. The focus of Behaviorism is on the conditioning of observable human behavior. J. B Watson, the father of Behaviorism, defined learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect relationships. The behaviorists’ example of classical conditioning demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in such a manner that would normally be associated with an unconditioned stimulus. The supporting example often cited with classical conditioning is the case of Pavlov’s dog. The focus of Pavlov’s experiment was the digestive process in animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon hearing the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing simultaneously with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for example hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise). B. F. Skinner expanded on the foundation of Behaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to Skinner, voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. â€Å"The learning principle behind operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement. †(Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 9) In his book entitled, The Technology of Teaching, Skinner wrote: The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearanc e of behavior which otherwise never occur. (Skinner, 1968, p. 4) Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement â€Å"†¦ through successive stages in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the required behavior. †(Skinner, 1968, p. 10) Applying the theoretical principles of Behaviorism to learning environments, it is easy to recognize that we have many â€Å"behaviorist artifacts†in our learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for years would reveal the powerful influence that Behaviorists have had on learning. The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either directly or through the set up of â€Å"contingencies†, is an excellent example of the Behaviorist model of learning. The use of exams to measure observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking down of the instruction process into â€Å"conditions of learning†(as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence. With the advent of the computer in school, C. A. I. , or computer-assisted instruction has become a prominent tool for teaching, because from a Behaviorist perspective, it is an effective way of learning. CAI uses the drill and practice approach to learning new concepts or skills. The question acting as the stimulus, elicits a response from the user. Based on the response a reward may be provided. The â€Å"contingencies†of learning are translated into different levels of the program. Rewarding the user to a different level for correct responses follows exactly the approach of operant conditioning. Educators have espoused CAI as an effective teaching approach because it allows for self-paced instruction and it liberates them from the direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those students with particular needs. Hyperlinks to Behaviorist Web Pages: http://www. coe. uh. edu/~srmehall/theory/theory. html http://tecfa. unige. ch/edu-comp/edu-s94/contrib/schneider/learn. fm. html#REF13085 http://www. sil. org/lingualinks/library/literacy/fre371/vao443/TKS2569/tks347/tks734/ http://mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learnterm_b. html [pic] Constructivism: The Associated Names of this Theory: Constructivsm is recognized as a unique learning theory in itself. It however, may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of learning it focuses on a learner’s ability to mentally construct meaning of their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching practice it is associated with different degrees of non-directed learning. The term constructivsm is linked to Cognitive and Social Constructivsm. Theorists associated with Constuctivism: John Dewey Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget Jerome Bruner Seymour Papert Mitchell Resnick A Description of Constructivism: The merits of Behaviorist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented. They have served well in teaching a growing North American population over the past six decades. Behavioral learning theory manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching. Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs, in their book, Principles of Instructional Design, combined Behaviorist principles of learning with a cognitive theory of learning named Information-Processing. The focus of the latter theory in this combination was of the internal processing that occurred during a learning moment. The design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. With reference to the learner, learning conditions are both external and internal. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what is being learned. How can these basic ideas be used to design instruction ? How can they be applied to the design of single lessons, of courses, and of entire systems of instructions ? (Gagne and Briggs, 1974, p. 14) Gagne and Briggs’ principles of instructional design broke down the teaching process into a systematic process of nine steps. It is in effect, this type of systematic approach to teaching that acted as the catalyst for the creation of another view of the way humans learn. Behaviorist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and goals were becoming outdated according to Constructivists like Seymour Papert. Constructivist learning theory sought to improve on what Behaviorist learning theory had already established by focussing on the motivation and ability for humans to construct learning for themselves. It viewed Behaviorism as being too teacher centered and directed. Constructivists regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives with test items. It was void of meaningful learning. They also saw the teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group work. The final critique of Behaviorist learning theory from the Constructivist perspective helped define the core of Constructivism. To imply that knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it must be transferred to the learner in a teacher centered approach fundamentally was counter to the Constructivist theory of learning. Constructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem-solving. The extent to which this process can take place naturally, without structure and teaching is the defining factor amongst those who advocate this learning theory. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, observed human development as progressive stages of cognitive development. His four stages, which commence at infancy and progress into adulthood, characterize the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment. Seymour Papert, psychologist and contemporary critique of Behaviorist teaching methods, writes in his book, The Children’s Machine: Thus, constructionism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism has as its main feature the fact that it looks more closely than other educational -isms at the idea of mental construction. It attaches special importance to the role of constructions in the world as a support for those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist doctrine. (Papert, 1993, p. 42) As the inventor of LOGO, the programming tool for children, Papert too believed that children as learners have a natural curiosity to construct meaning of their world. The educational system as Papert saw it was too structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which children were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the teaching hence, they were not motivated to construct any learning for themselves. Learning according to Constructiv ists is a question of motivating an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive experiences. According to Papert: It [constuctivsm] does not call in question the value of instruction as such. That would be silly: Even the statement (endorsed if not originated by Piaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an opportunity for discovery is not a categorical imperative against teaching, but a paradoxically expressed reminder to keep it in check. The constructionist attitude to teaching is not at all dismissive because it is minimalist – the goal is to teach in such a way as to produce the most learning for the least teaching. Of course, this cannot be achieved simply by reducing the quantity of teaching while leaving everything unchanged. The principle other necessary change parallels an African proverb: If a man is hungry you can give him a fish, but it is better to give him a line and teach him to catch fish himself. (Papert, 1993, p. 139) Papert’s desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers, problem-solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational reform that provides the learner with the necessary tools to participate and to take ownership of the learning process. According to Papert, the computer is the appropriate tool to achieve such desired educational reform. These desired objectives of Papert and others who share the Constructivist view of learning are coming closer to reality as more people discover the power of computer technology. From Donald Tapscott’s perspective, Papert’s desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm shift to more interactive learning due to the exploitation of the digital media is taking place in our learning institutions. Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning today: †¢ From linear to hypermedia. †¢ From instruction to construction and discovery. †¢ From teacher-centered to learner-centered education. †¢ From absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn. †¢ From school to lifelong learning. †¢ From one-size-fits-all to customized learning. †¢ From learning as torture as learning as fun. †¢ From the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator. Hyperlinks to Constructivist Web Pages: http://www. tcimet. net/mmclass/summer/CHPTales. tm http://www. coe. uh. edu/~srmehall/theory/construct. html http://www. gwu. edu/~tip/bruner. html http://www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/people/seymour. html http://www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/home_alt. html http://lynx. dac. neu. edu/home/httpd/t/tjohnson/papert%20history. htm [pic] Fitting the other Theories onto the Spectrum The two extremes of the spectrum have been outlined (refer to diagram #2). Inherent within each of these two extremes are related theories. Diagram #2: (Spectrum Summary) Behaviorism                                                                                 Constructivism Directed Instruction                                                                            Non-directed Instruction Objectivist                                                                                    Constructivist Teacher-centered                                                                            Learner-centered Behavioral observations                                                                    Cognitive operations Focus on the individual                                                                    Group work is emphasized More focussed on one approach                                                    More holistic in approach Fundamentally, Constructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its focus on the mental processes that construct meaning. Other learning theories equated with cognitive psychology are: Information-Processing theory, Scaffolding theory (associated with the Russian philosopher Lev Vygotsky) and Brain-based learning theory (associated with neuroscientists such as Marian Diamond and Robert Sylwester and educator Susan Kovalik). Information-Processing theory regards human learning as being analogous to a computer and its ability to store memory. As humans we process information initially with our senses. This information is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. If this information is used and practised it is only then put into long term memory. Lev Vygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social development. The culture we live in influences our social and cognitive development according to Vygotsky. He further recognized the differences of how the world is seen by children and by adults. Vygotsky labelled this difference in cognitive ability as the â€Å"zone of proximal development†. The job of educators was to identify this zone and to find out where the child was situated in this zone and build upon their specific level through a â€Å"scaffolding†process. Building from what the learner knows is in essence, anchoring the learning on past experience. Such anchoring is fundamental to Constructivist theory of learning. Computer technology is viewed by Seymour Papert as an excellent means to anchoring learning to meaningful experiences. The complexity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our complexity as biological, social and cognitive animals. Many theories exist, all focussing on different aspects of our make-up as humans. Each theory is an attempt to explain how we learn, act and behave: Sigmund Freud focussed on our sub-conscious, Skinner on our observable behavior, cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on our social and interpersonal development. Howard Gardner took a more holistic approach in describing our cognitive profiles. His classification of human intellectual ability into seven intelligences incorporates many aspects of psychology to define the cognitive behavior of humans. Before moving on to Multiple Intelligences , refer to the following hyperlinks for information on other learning theories. http://mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learning. html [pic] Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Human intelligence should not be equated solely with linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence alone, according to Howard Gardner. As the author of a new way of looking at human intelligences, Gardner, a Harvard professor, identified a total of seven different intelligences that humans may possess. His list includes: †¢ Linguistic intelligence †¢ Logical-mathematical intelligence †¢ Spatial intelligence †¢ Musical intelligence †¢ Bodily-kinesthetic †¢ Interpersonal intelligence †¢ Intrapersonal intelligence Gardner is working on more intelligences that qualify as cognitive processes: â€Å"Multiple intelligences theory, on the other hand, pluralizes the traditional concept†(Gardner, 1993, p. 15) Gardner’s fascination with human intelligence and how the brain works was started with an investigation of people who had experienced brain damage of some sort. He recognized that not all abilities, whether cognitive or motor-sensory, were eliminated from the individual’s repertoire despite having endured some form of brain damage. Gardner hypothesized that we possess more than one form of intelligence. The theory of multiple intelligences provides a more holistic view of the intelligence of humans. Gardner advocates that we may all attempt to develop each of these intelligences to our optimum level. However, we may be more adept in only certain of these intelligences. We may however, aspire through practice and development to improve in the remaining intelligences. The use of technology appeals to this view of intelligence in that Gardner’s theory acknowledges that cognition is not a linear process. The computer as a learning tool has enormous potential in developing the different forms of intelligences of Gardner’s theory. Hyperlinks to Multiple Intelligences Web Pages: http://www. athena. ivv. nasa. gov/curric/weather/adptcty/multint. html [pic] Learning Theories and the Brain What is Learning? Learning is the process by which we receive and process sensory data, encode such data as memories within the neural structures of our brain, and retrieve those memories for subsequent use. The variety of information stored within such memories is enormous, including such items as: how to control your sphincter muscle until a socially appropriate occasion, how to identify mommy in a crowd, how to ride a bicycle, what is the shortest path to grandmother’s house without going near the lair of the wolf, what is the tune for Beethoven’s Ode to Joy, and what a philosopher means when she says â€Å"The cat is on the mat. All learning takes place within the brain, and as our understanding of the underlying structures and processes of the brain increases we can begin to apply that knowledge to improve our construction of learning environments. Our ability to describe and understand the basic processes by which our brain learns has been enhanced by recent technological developments and by the accumulation of long-term studies in human and animal populations. Of particular benefit has been the development of brain-imaging techniques that allow us to observe the operation of normal human brains during the performance of a variety of tasks. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and similar technologies have allowed researchers to map neural activity during sensory data processing and monitor the transfer of information into long-term memory. Researchers have also made great strides in determining the basic mechanisms that underlie the transmission of information within the brain. Such research on brain structure, neural transmitters, and the process by which memories are stored and retrieved have allowed the development of neuro-physiological models of learning. Although neuroscience has provided us with an increasingly rich and accurate descriptive theory of learning within the brain, we still need prescriptive theories of how to maximize the efficiency and capacity of human learning. To some extent all learning theories are prescriptive and seek to minimize the time required to transfer information into memory and maximize the efficiency of retrieving that information. Our current knowledge of the brain, and our speculations regarding the evolutionary function of learning, should assist such prescriptive theories in designing learning environments that provide for maximum learning efficiency. In particular, prescriptive theories informed by our current knowledge of neuroscience should allow us to evaluate the role of multimedia in learning environments. We should also be able to maximize the impact of multimedia in such environments through application of learning theories and our knowledge of the human brain. Learning environments should not be construed simply as the traditional formal classroom within the context of institutionalized public education. Such environments occur within the workplace, the home, and other social institutions as communication and information technology continues to penetrate Western society. We should also be aware that the use of multimedia will have an impact upon the development of the human brain, particularly when such techniques are used with children and adolescents whose brains are still developing and maturing. [pic] The Brain The three-pound universe that is our brain consists of more than 100 billion neurons and the associated structures that organize, nourish, and protect their functioning. Each neuron may have between 5,000 and 50,000 connections to other neurons, forming a dense connective mat that allows the storage of enormous amounts of information. It is important to remember that structures within the brain continue to develop until late adolescence and that neurons will continue to grow connections to other neurons throughout adult life. [pic] Brain Structures The diagram above shows four basic structures in the brain that are important for bodily functions and for learning and memory. The brain stem is primarily concerned with basic survival functions and the regulation of body systems. The cerebellum is involved in the performance of automatic movement patterns (walking, running, touch-typing, and other physical skills that can become part of automatic procedural memory). The limbic system is responsible for the processing of short-term memory into long-term memory as well as the generation and regulation of emotions. The cerebral cortex is the area of the brain in which sensory data is received and analyzed, decisions are made, and behavioral responses are activated. Information is received from the major sensory organs of the body: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin; and is held briefly in sensory memory. The further processing of that information appears to be dependent upon the state of emotional arousal of the brain and the utility of such information for potential survival. Long-term memories are generated through the growth and spread of neural connections between those modular structures that contain the memory (Sylwester, 1995, pp. 89-90). The more often such structures are activated and the stronger the connections become to associated structures, the more easily such memories are retrieved and used by the brain in decision making and conscious thought. To some extent the driving forces behind the way our brain processes sensory input and makes decisions are the survival imperatives that accompanied human physical and cultural evolution. Our brains reflect the importance that survival places upon evaluating potential threat situations, making a quick response, and focusing all body resources on support of those functions that may lead to continued survival. In high-threat situations the focus of the brain will be almost exclusively upon what is identified as the potential threat while the body shuts down relatively unimportant systems to concentrate on those involved in the fight-or-flight response. Low-threat situations allow the brain to sample and evaluate a broader spectrum of sensory input and to analyze such input for future use. Thus a large looming shadow in the cave mouth tends to generate fear, prompting the body to shut down digestion, pump more adrenaline, and prepare the cerebellum to handle the process of running while the cerebral cortex looks for places to hide or make a stand. Strong negative emotion tends to evoke the fight-or-flight physiological and mental responses that shut down high-level cognition. A premium should therefor be placed upon the reduction of those factors within a learning environment that give rise to negative emotions. At the same time, sensory input that does not receive attention is not available for processing through short-term into long-term memory. Clearly a balance must be struck between too much and too little stimulation in learning situations. Some stimulation and motivation is necessary for the learner to pay attention to the data that they are required to learn; on the other hand too much stimulation (particularly in a negative context) is liable to create anger or fear as an emotional response, either of which can serve to reduce the amount of learning carried out within the environment. It appears that the limbic system plays an important part in the process of storing information as long-term memories. Those activities that provide an emotionally supportive environment may well have a positive effect upon the processing of information into long-term storage and subsequent retrieval of those memories. Group activities, co-operative learning, role-playing, and simulations tend to provide emotional support and emotional context for learning. Retrieval of long-term memories is enhanced when a large number of connections have been established between the neural modules that store such memories. To some extent our growing knowledge about the organization of the brain tends to support those theories of learning that can generally be labeled as constructivist. That is, situated knowledge that is connected to a large number of other memories is more apt to be recalled than is unconnected knowledge that has been learned by rote. Because the process of creating connections between ideas and memories is essentially carried out through a process of rehearsal and review, learners should be encouraged to review knowledge that is being learned and attempt to build connections to that knowledge that is already easily retrieved from long-term memory. Such cognitive tools as narration, story-telling, constructing metaphors, and making comparisons are strategies that help to build and maintain connections. The construction of knowledge is essentially the growing of connections between the neural modules that contain individual memories. [pic] Implications for Learning Theory If the apparent symmetry between contemporary brain-based learning theories and constructivism is accurate, then basic guiding principles of constructivism should be used in designing learning environments. These principles include: 1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. 2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. 3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to understand the world, and the assumptions that support those models. 4. The purpose of learning is to construct one’s own meaning, not to have the â€Å"right†answers by repeating someone else’s meaning. Learning is inherently inter-disciplinary, and the only valuable assessment of learning is assessment that is part of the learning process and that provides students with information on the quality of their learning. (On Purpose Associates, 1998b) Such learning environments should also be designed around the ideas that come forward from brain-based learning. That is, they should employ the three instructional techniques associated with brain-based learning: â€Å"orchestrated immersion, where learning environments are created that fully immerse students in a learning experience; relaxed alertness, where an effort is made to eliminate fear while maintaining a highly challenging environment; and active processing, where the learner consolidates and internalizes information by actively processing it†(On Purpose Associates, 1998a). Learning environments constructed with these principles in mind will tend to be organized around thematic units featuring knowledge in depth and the exploration of projects that have real meaning for the participating learners. [pic] Implications for Multimedia How should we then use multimedia presentations of information to effectively learn in the context of current brain-based learning theory? The communications and information technology that constitutes contemporary multimedia platforms has some significant advantages in creating a learning environment, but there are some pitfalls that must be accounted for as part of the learning process. Multimedia, at its best, allows us to bring the real world to the learner through the use of sound and video. Such connection to the real world should serve as a factor in motivating students, and as a factor in providing them with additional connections to other knowledge structures. At the same time, multimedia allows students to experience information through multiple modes of presentation. Such multi-modal learning should help to build connections within the learner’s brain if only because multiple modes of reception will engage different areas of the learner’s brain. Contemporary multimedia platforms allow a greater degree of learner control and more freedom for the learner to undertake self-directed exploration of the material. Such self-directed learning is likely to be more meaningful and more connected to existing knowledge structures within the learner’s brain. Therefore, we should see advantages for learning programs that include multimedia presentations. Learners should also gain from the possibility of self-paced instruction based upon contemporary multimedia learning technology. Whenever possible, immediate feedback should be built into a multimedia program to assist students in forming correct connections prior to reinforcing connections between new and old information incorporated within existing knowledge structures. Designers of multimedia instructional packages should take comfort in the strengths of multimedia, but they should also be aware of potential problems in using multimedia with learners. Although current multimedia technology allows excellent presentation in both video and audio modes, and provides some tactile feedback through the use of keyboards, there is little to offer students who need tactile experience ? multimedia is essentially a bimodal presentation strategy unless additional work is done to prepare material for students. Even the best multimedia programs cannot provide the total stimulation that natural environments provide? we have yet to incorporate smell or taste into such presentations, and tactile sensations are still limited. More importantly, there is a clear danger that multimedia programs may be used to substitute for interaction with other learners. We should not be seduced by technical virtuosity or cutting-edge visual and aural effects, there is still a need for human interaction and emotional support. Above all else, we should beware of the tendency to substitute passive learning for active learning. Multimedia provides significant advantages in presenting information to learners, particularly if sufficient resources have been invested to create presentations that make full use of current technology. Presentation of information, no matter how technically sophisticated, is not enough; learners must interact with content to construct their own meanings and integrate new knowledge into the dense web of neural connections that is mind and memory. [pic]
Article Rebuttal Essay
The author stated that, â€Å"There is a difference between a married couple and a same-sex couple in a long-term relationship. The difference is between the duties that marriage imposes on married people–not rights, but rather onerous obligations–which do not apply to same-sex love. †This statement, in my opinion, is completely untrue. All relationships can be difficult and time consuming, the statement would have more truth if the author of was talking about all relationships or marriages. When reading the article, I took every word as people that are in a same sex relationship can’t have a normal marriage or a normal family and normal life and that is why same sex marriage will ultimately fail. The only thing that is different about same sex marriage is that the genders of both people are the same. This doesn’t mean that the two people can’t have children, it just means they can‘t have them in the traditional way. Homosexuals that are married can have a normal life; they just might have to face other judgmental people, which they face even without being married. This author had no credibility, no fact or anything to back up his argument. There were not any reliable sources in this argument which makes me believe that everything about this article was just the opinion of the author. While I believe that everyone is entitled to their own opinions, I believe one should have reliable sources and make valid points before writing an article and making it public especially on such a controversial topic. Reference; http://www. weeklystandard. com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/016/533narty. asp
Friday, August 30, 2019
Preventing AIDS
AIDS Essay Today many people around the world are infected with a serious disease called AIDS. Unfortunately, the disease has led to many deaths worldwide and yet it still remains untreatable. Many Public Health Departments are now taking the lead in publicizing education about AIDS. Public awareness and prevention programs are possible solutions to the spread of AIDS. The issue of this paper is on AIDS Prevention Programs that target women. One outlook is that prevention programs that target women will reduce the number of infections around the world.People opposed to this believe that prevention programs should aim more towards males. The disease is obviously an important social issue which impacts people worldwide. Certain associations and studies believe that women are more at danger then men for contracting HIV/AIDS. They believe prevention programs should be focused merely on women. AIDS cases for women are increasing each year and women are one of the fastest growing populatio ns being infected. At the end of 2002, UNAIDS, a Joint United Nations Progamme on HIV/AIDS, reported that 38. 6 million adults are infected with HIV or AIDS worldwide.Roughly 50% or 19. 2 million are women. Globally speaking, most women infected with HIV or AIDS are from developing countries. The fastest spread of AIDS among women is in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1999, for the first time more women than men were infected with HIV. Out of 22. 3 million people infected in sub Saharan Africa 12. 2 million, or 55%, are female. Of the 1. 1 million youth infected in south Asia, 62% are female. According to research by the CDC, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, the amount of AIDS cases in women have more than tripled in the United States.Since 1985, 7% of women were affected to 25% in 1999. With the number of AIDS cases in women increasing, organizations are relying on prevention programs aimed towards women to be the effective solution to prevent the spread of the virus amongst men a nd women. In contrary to the opposing viewpoint, reports by UNAIDS felt that men should be the main focus in the prevention programs. In 2000, UNAIDS commenced a World AIDS Campaign which pushed for men to become more involved in preventing the spread of the AIDS outbreak. â€Å"We must stop seeing men as ome kind of problem and begin seeing them as part of the solution,†according to Dr Peter Piot, the head director of UNAIDS. â€Å"Working with men to change their behavior and attitudes has tremendous potential to slow down the epidemic. It will also improve the lives of men themselves, not to mention those of their families. †There are several reasons why men should remain the main target to the prevention of the epidemic. The focus is mainly on changing sexual behaviors amongst men. Men grow up with certain beliefs and attitudes on how they should behave when dealing with intercourse. Dr.Elvira Belingon, Department of Health STD/AIDS Coordinator in Cordillera expl ained that worldwide studies prove that men are at a greater risk of spreading the disease because they are likely to have more unprotected intercourse and sexual partners than women do. â€Å"Too often, it is seen as ‘unmanly' to worry about avoiding drug-related risks, or to bother with condoms,†said Dr Piot. UNAIDS feel these cultural beliefs and expectations allow men to become vulunerable to AIDS which endangers their own health or the health of their partners and family. This vulnerability has already affected gay and bisexual men in the United States.Sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis have rose for the second year in a row. The government feels that gays and bisexuals are more susceptible to these sexually transmitted diseases and with the help of these prevention programs they can decrease that number. In order to help control the AIDS epidemic, organization’s feel prevention programs should focus more on men’s behavior. I believe that prevention programs should be aimed towards women because of the steady increase of infections year to year. Women are more susceptible to HIV infection for several reasons.Biologically, females are estimated to be eight times more likely of receiving and HIV transmission from a male compared to female-to-male transmission. In 1997, the CDC reported that 38% of women received HIV through heterosexual intercourse opposed to 7% of men. Women are more at risk because the surface area in a female’s genital tract is greater exposed than in males. During intercourse larger amounts of semen fluids are released than in vaginal fluids. This puts women at risk because semen contains a higher amount of HIV. Also, women often have sexually transmitted infections that are left untreated, which increases exposure to HIV.Women who have STDs, sexually transmitted diseases, especially those that cause ulcerations make it easier for HIV to enter the body. Genital sores and immune reactions re lated with STDs face a greater risk of HIV infection. Treatment of STDs can be an efficient HIV prevention tactic if prevention programs educate women on this exposure. Other biological factors deal with young women among the ages of 13 to 19. Girls in Charge coordinator, Judah-Abijah Dorrington, explained that 49% of all the AIDS cases reported in the United States since 1997 were among these young women.This age group is infected because they have not fully completed their biological development. Many of the women obtained HIV in their teens because of â€Å"having an underdeveloped cervix and low vaginal mucus production. †In the report by AIDS Weekly, young women are found to have three to five times higher HIV infections than among boys. â€Å"Young women really are being viewed as the population with the largest number of new infections,†said Dr. Cynthia Gomez, professor for the AIDS Prevention Center at the University of California at San Francisco. They don't realize they're at risk, partly because we've only emphasized certain groups, rather than behaviors. †Women are vulnerable to infection for their lack of power within sexual relationships and sexual violence. Women’s lack of power makes it difficult for them to negotiate safer sex with partners. Women tend not to discuss condom use within relationships in fear of rejection or loss of economic support. When women are in committed relationships, they mainly focus on the intimacy in their relationship. They assume they are in a monogamous relationship with their partner.Unsafe sex becomes more important than protection against HIV. This dependence of men increases the risk of AIDS for women. A report from Secretary General of the United Nation, Kofi Annan concluded, â€Å"The gender dynamics of the epidemic are far-reaching due to women's weaker ability to negotiate safe sex, and their generally lower social and economic status. †Studies in Africa have uncovered that many married women have been infected by their husband. The powerlessness of women to reject sex with their husband has been a major cause of transmission to women.Women's dependence on men makes women less able to protect themselves against AIDS. Typically, men make most decisions about when, where, and how to have sex. In developing countries, women usually maintain little control over their bodies and hold little decision-making power. Violence against women increases their helplessness to HIV and decreases their ability to defend themselves against infection. According to a study, â€Å"physical and sexual abuse were ‘disturbingly common’ throughout life among women at high risk for HIV infection†¦women who have been abused are more likely to use crack cocaine and have multiple sex partners. This puts women are at greater risk for rape or sexual force. Also, some women are forced to enter into sex work or short-term partnerships to exchange sex for econom ic gain or survival including food, refuge, and security. In many cases, women are in danger merely because they are reliant on their husbands for survival and support. This hinders and restricts their decision making and negotiating control. Sex workers are at a high risk for infection, mainly when they do not have the ability to negotiate with customers who refuse to wear a condom.In order to prevent the spread of AIDS I feel public health agencies need to raise public awareness by promoting prevention programs for women. If women are educated on the biological and social factors of AIDS, women may have more of a chance to change their behaviors before the possibility of becoming infected with HIV. Programs that specifically target women will have a positive impact on women in the long-run. As new AIDS cases are increasing quickly through heterosexual contact focus on the prevention programs will take on even greater importance.People that agree with the statement that AIDS preven tion programs should target women believe that women are vulnerable to HIV infection biologically and socially. To decrease infections of the AIDS virus women change their standard of living especially for women in developing countries through these prevention programs. Those that disagree focus HIV prevention efforts on heterosexual male sexual behavior. By changing male cultural and socialization patterns interventions can be effective. A widespread HIV prevention policy uses many essentials to protect as many people at risk for HIV as possible.
Thursday, August 29, 2019
Intravenous Drug Users Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Intravenous Drug Users - Assignment Example This paper will focus on the on the vulnerability of the youths towards intravenous drug abuse. The most vulnerable population of this abuse is the youth’s offenders this is according to the study carried out in South Australia. These youths are mostly found in areas that are densely populated. Lack of good storage techniques of syringes encourages intravenous drug use among the youths. Statistics indicate that there is less use of drugs in youths that are under the care of the parents than those that are on the streets. An assessment was carried out among the youths to acquire appropriate data on the usage of drugs. Most youths were not ready to comply with this assessment. It was later found that intravenous drug abuse is most common among the youths of the age between 14-19 years old (Chin 133). The youths seem to abuse drugs more than the adults. Substance abuse increases with an increase in age. Male youths have been reported to abuse drugs more than women. This abuse amo ng youth’s emanates from environmental factors and also social factors. Intravenous drug users get to learn from there peers. Youths who reside in urban centers are reported to be the most vulnerable towards drug abuse. These youths are influenced into substance abuse by those individuals that have a close connection to the drugs. ... A study carried out in Canada proved that the high spread of substance abuse was due to the high level of homelessness among the youths. Therefore, this homeless children resort to staying in the streets where they are lured into substance use. Others participate in transportation or selling of these drugs to earn a living (Chin 139). Another contributing factor to the usage of drugs is stress among the youths who later resort to abuse of drugs. Adults play a role in fueling drug use among the use for instance ignorance among parents on their children’s welfare, there are adults who encourage intravenous drug use by selling drugs and syringes to the youths. Abuse of drugs has had negative far reaching effects on the youth population. Most cases of HIV/AIDS has been caused due to substance abuse. Unplanned pregnancies have also bee caused by substance abuse therefore leading to production of children by children. Intravenous drug abuse is sometimes caused by an individualâ€⠄¢s ignorance. Most youths are adamant to the teachings and blind to the negative effects that accrue from substance abuse. Another reason to the high substance abuse is school drop outs. Most undisciplined students drop out of school to engage in substance abuse. They do not care about the effects of these drugs to their health. Effects of intravenous drug abuse have been made known worldwide therefore; the youth’s engagement in this act cannot be blamed to the environmental factors but rather themselves (McCarthy 16). Research is very important in shaping ones attitudes. The bias that has been formed against the intravenous drug users can be changed through research. This is because we get to learn different factors that lead to substance abuse among the youths. An individual will be able
Wednesday, August 28, 2019
Society-Law & Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Society-Law & Government - Essay Example The adult parole population grew 1.1%, rising to a total of 732,351 by December 31, 2001.†Glaze also added that since 1995, there had been a steady growth in correctional population. From 1.3 percent annual growth, it had increased to 3.7 percent per annum on jails, 3.6 percent per annum on prisons, and 3.4 percent per annum on probation (Glaze, 2001). With the continued financial difficulty brought about by the global economic crisis, it is no wonder that more and more people are committing felony. For some, drugs could have been a way of escape since 25 percent or a quarter of all probationers were convicted of a drug law violation. Others, alcohol had been a way of escape since 18 percent of all probationers were arrested for driving intoxicated or under the influence of alcohol (Glaze, 2001). I would definitely agree with the statistics given the fact that the general American public is very stressed out with ways of coping with financial difficulty that almost everyone is experiencing right now. Social stratification refers to the various strata of social groups that make up the community. Social groupings based on gender, ethnicity, power, economic affluence, are just a few means to which people are grouped together. For instance, in our current society, people are more often associated with upper, middle, or lower classes. By studying the concepts of social stratification, one would be able to identify how each social group relates to one another and how their presence affects the community as a whole. By doing so, it hopes to be able to find the root causes of inequality and its impact on the overall aspects of the social life (Saunders, 1990). In terms of the delivery and quality of legal services in the United States, I believe that economic inequality and ethnicity are two driving social forces that impact its efficacy.
Tuesday, August 27, 2019
Swimming (Pleasures and meanings) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words
Swimming (Pleasures and meanings) - Essay Example Swimming is a pleasure that engages the literary interpretations of water, the individual and the public seeking to refresh and make new their spirit through the flow of cooling water over their bodies. Clients Name Name of Professor Name of Class Date The Pleasure of Swimming Water flows around the body, the pressure made by cupped hands propelling the movement forward or back, as the flesh parts the liquid and glides through. There is little resistance as movement presses it, manipulating the shape, and using it to change direction or displace oneself from one distinct space to the next. Never the same nor ever not defined through its volume, the shifting current is always about what is new. Water refreshes and refines, carrying great symbolism in the literary discourse, while still having stable and concrete purpose in the physical world. Nothing in the world represents purity in quite the same way as water, even though in its natural state it is constantly full of different types of bacteria, algae, and life. Bodies are mostly water, tears are water, and the road to health is full of water. Swimming through water is a pleasure of the spirit, one of the most solitary sports that, even in a room full of spectators, becomes an interaction of quiet between the water and the swimmer. Pleasure and sensation are not the same thing because pleasure is a definition of a type of sensation. The philosophy of pleasure is tied to the physiology of sensation, but sensation is not always required for pleasure. Puccetti conducted experiments trying to define the pleasure centers and concluded that pleasure was within the brain and could be located, but despite the fact that he also found the center of punishment, and that a monkey would deteriorate quickly if the punishment center was stimulated repeated over the course of hours, indicates that there is more to punishment and pleasure than can be found in physiological discourse. Pleasure is a discourse as much as an exper ience. It is the framing of ideas that result in something that extends into the social and cultural experience. Swimming is an event that can be discussed through a great many different concepts. Swimming is an isolated event, the water creating barriers between one swimmer and the next. It is also a social event where crowds of people come together to enjoy the nature of water, the cooling effect that it has on a summer day or the atmosphere it brings for enjoying the interactions of family and friends. Sometimes it involves a sporting event where crowds gather to watch the prowess of a swimmer, their sleek, long muscles gliding fervently through the water. Akiko Busch discusses the idea of swimming as a way in which to cross a divide, to summon up enough spirit to conquer space and one’s position in the greater scheme of life. When Busch took up the challenge to swim across the Hudson River, a great many cultural connections became apparent through the course of the event. The Hudson River is a place of deep history. In the late 1990s a team of scientists decided to create a sonar map of the river bed floor in order to investigate data relevant to marine life habitation. However, what they discovered was more than 200 wrecks that catalogued centuries of history from the time of the American Revolution, through the subsequent river tragedies. In addition, a 3000 year old wall
Monday, August 26, 2019
Strategic management in the tourism industry Essay
Strategic management in the tourism industry - Essay Example However other airports in London like Heathrow and Gatwick which have a much wider passenger base have much more advanced communication systems built by the likes of Siemens. (Businesswire, 2001). Another strength that is available to Luton over all other airports is its geographic location. It is situated in London which is not only the centre for business in the UK, but also one of the major tourist attractions that is offered by the European Union. People who are either on vacations or on business tend to visit London throughout the year. Therefore the number of passengers arriving in London based airports is fixed and sees a constant gradual increase every other year. But considering in London, there are four other airports, Luton strives to compete with the traffic generated throughout London (Greater and the City). Each of these airports caters to a different market and a different geographic segment thus each airport remains competitive and unique. The airport boasts of having a spacious parking lot where passengers can leave their automobiles over short or long periods of time. The valet parking system frees the owners of having to find their own parking space and provides the assurance of security to the owners who can have peace of mind while they are on their trip. In comparison, Heathrow and Gatwick which caters to a much higher number of passengers and parking area is unable to accommodate passengers who want to leave their cars in walking distance from the airport. (Luton-Airport, 2008) Another major strength of Luton airport which can be noted is the number of destinations which Luton airport passengers get to go to. Luton airport forwards passengers to 85 destinations worldwide. Being the 5th largest airport in UK, its passenger base has been increasing by 5% for a few years now. Compared to Gatwick's growth by 2.5% and Stansted's growth by 10%, one can say that Luton's growth has been average yet steady. Weaknesses of Luton Airport Due to the fore mentioned strengths, Luton has a large passenger turnover rate. Thus more passengers equate to more luggage and baggage being brought into and sent out of the airport. The sheer amount of baggage being transferred results in quite a few cases of lost baggage over time. Luton does not yet have sufficient resources to fully manage the problem of the handling of luggage and is facing problems in this regard. But even with the best technology and hi-fi RFID systems implemented by Heathrow airport to track the luggage, the first day at the opening of the new Terminal 5 saw a great deal of problems. In
Sunday, August 25, 2019
Personal use of ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Personal use of ethics - Essay Example Ethics can be further sub-divided in many forms, such as deontological ethics, utilitarian ethics, natural law ethics, Divine command ethics, social contract ethics, care ethics, virtue ethics, and normative ethics. All these ethics have a very specific and pivotal role in personal life of an individual, as well as his/her professional commitments (Mizzoni?, 2010). Deontological ethics can be referred to as morality, obligation or rule based ethics. Deontology dictates the moral values of a person as a response to the rules and regulations even if he or she is not being monitored. It is something related to self discipline. Utilitarian ethics include all good and bad results of an act, which are produced after completion of an act or popped-up at any stage during the act. The acts can be classified as morally right or wrong only if the consequences are so significant that a person wishes to see the agent compelled, not merely persuaded and exhorted, to act in the preferred manner. Vi rtue ethics is the ordinary times of our lives when we face daily life decisions that involve conflict of values. It is concerned about how people express and form their character through their choices and actions in everyday situation. It sees the ordinary life as the place where most of moral life takes place (Pojman?, 2005). Virtue ethics in normal life Among the above defined ethics, virtue ethics is the most common and important of all ethics as it has a role to play in every walk of life. It forms the basis towards other major approaches; it is goal oriented ethics because we strive to live morally in order to move closer to the perfection that God desires and perfect union with the God that awaits us. Virtue ethics are commonly referred as Aristotelian virtue ethics. These ethics are teleological as the character values of a person are linked with relations to other human beings. In our daily life and our connection with the people around us, the thing that creates the person ality image is purely dependent upon some of the factors. The first factor is how much obligations one has to him/herself, the family, the community or the world at large. These obligations come through the basic character traits induced in grooming and personality development. The second factor is being fair in life with everyone, irrespective of the fact that this person is known or unknown to you (Carr? and Steutel, 1999). Having achieved a better standard in virtue ethics by some of the factors mentioned above, the individual can influence all aspects of his/her life, including the profession. A person with strong character traits will definitely be loyal and hardworking to the profession, thereby keeping an instinct check on his/her dealings and response to the surrounding people. Justified behaviour with everyone is of utmost important in our day to day life; whether we are at home with families, out in market for shopping or in hospital for medical care (Shaw?, 1993). In toda y’s era, everyone around us seems to be much self-centred, busy in the personal life, committed to the private business; thereby ignoring or not paying the due attention to the rights of people around. We observe the same while we are travelling on the road, interacting with people in markets, in the streets and even in the hospitals. We only focus on requirements and needs specific to us without realizing that someone may be in more distress or has got more disturbances. Even if we extend help to someone, s/he feels
Saturday, August 24, 2019
Consumer Behaviour Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Consumer Behaviour - Assignment Example Sachdev & Verma (2002) established that consumers are not only influenced by the appearance of a new product. Rather, their decision is highly dependent product promotion. Lush Cosmetics has developed men’s lotion as a start of diversification of its product line. Aqua Mist is a light weight body lotion that has a smooth texture, which the company associates with the desired fragrance among consumers. This aspect is viewed by the management as the justification for the new brand in the market. The company plans to produce different categories with regards to prices and size. Nessim and Wozniak (2009) suggest that consumers differ in demand preference. It is with this respect that the company decided to develop men’s lotion to cater for male consumers equally as past products have always catered for feminine needs. The reason as to why the company made the decision is to utilize the existing opportunity since no other company produces such variety for men’s lotion . Consumer preferences differ and hence for the company needs to satisfy a wide range of needs the lotion has to be produced in varying sizes, colors, scents and quantities. This strategy will enable the company to effectively accomplish market segmentation, targeting and position its products, thereby maintaining competitiveness. This approach to marketing has been applied to enhance performance and sustainability (Sachdev & Verma, 2002). Consumer Behavior Blackwell et al (2005) establish three phases of consumer decision making process which includes need recognition, information search and alternative evaluation and selection. Need recognition involves the realization that a need exists based on desire to acquire an item or service or may be prompted by a stimulus in the environment such as advertisements which create awareness. The marketers play a great role in influencing buying behaviour depending on their convincing degree. A buyer may not be aware of a product but through m arketing, he is made aware that such thing exists and, hence, he/she develops a desire to purchase or he may not be interested in the product based on age, attitude, emotions, and perceptions of the product, culture where taboos prohibit use of certain products (Hoyer & Macinnis, 2009). For a company to successfully introduce a new product in the market, it has to evaluate fully how the product will be adopted by the consumers. Consumers always demand value for their money when they making any purchase. Companies always seek to understand consumer behavior with respect to product development (Blackwell et al, 2005). Customer preferences change with time and, therefore, continuous assessment of the market is needed. The aim of research is to make sure customers derive satisfaction after consuming the goods, hence, buy more. Buyers’ behaviour is determined by various factors such as attitudes, personality, motivation, gender and the environment in general among others (Folkes, 2006). On the other hand, Blackwell et al (2005) argue that buyer’s behaviour is prompted by need or problem recognition. They make purchases but not all goods are up to expected standards hence customers are bound to make complaints. According to Hayes (2008), the successful development of a new product is highly dependent on the consumer. Consumers tend to be subjective with the kind of products or services they
Friday, August 23, 2019
Australian Stock Exchange Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words
Australian Stock Exchange - Essay Example This is done either to remove risks or to obtain a profit. According to Becket (2012), stock exchange is a public place where a company can sell its shares to investors or where an investor can buy or sell shares to another investor. Australian Stock Exchange is one of such places used for trading stocks. This paper explains an evaluation of this market and discusses the importance of the market to the Australian economy. The Australian Stock Exchange manages all the activities related to trading of shares in Australia. The activities concern both primary and secondary services required by companies and investors in the trading of shares. This includes capital information and hedging, trading and price discovery, risk transfer, and securities settlement (ASX, 2012). This stock exchange has been ranked among the largest in the world in terms of market capitalization. According to Downers and Masci (2003), the Australian Stock Exchange was in the past converted from a mutual organizati on to a company. Due to this, it expanded its regulations and incorporated public interests in its operations. Moreover, it became more accountable to the members of the public. This is because the public is its main owner. One of the major responsibilities of this stock exchange is to distribute necessary information to companies, current shareholders, and potential shareholders. According to Webb and Yu (2004), some of the most crucial information that this company distributes is information about change in shareholding, notices of intended takeovers, and statements of directors’ interests. This information can guide investors in making decisions of whether to trade their stocks or to continue holding them. Moreover, it can guide companies in their decisions to introduce new shares to the markets when seeking funds for expanding. Furthermore, they can guide the company in determining appropriate prices for the shares it intends to introduce in the stock market. Most of this information is conveyed in the form of news articles. However, the Australian Stock Exchange also uses its website to convey information to the public. The information that it conveys through its website ranges from share prices to information on investment education and trading games (Pollard, 2011). This information could also be very crucial to investors, potential investors, and listed companies. The stock exchange coordinates with other stock exchanges of the world – the most important of them are the stock exchanges of the Unites States, United Kingdom, China, Japan, and New Zealand (ASX, 2012). This is because these countries are the Australia’s major trading partners. It organizes the Australian equities to be given exemptions on other foreign equity markets and gives exemptions to foreign equities traded in the Australian equity market. According to Campbell (2008), this stock exchange has offered exemptions to New Zealand equities offered to Australian publi c similar to the ones offered for Australian equities offered in New Zealand. This promotes the flow of capital in and out of this country, which positively affects economic activities in the country. Clear comparison can be drawn between the Australian Stock Exchange and other stock exchanges of the world. This stock exchange is among the most developed ones internationally. As a result, it can be closely compared, for example, with the New York Stock Exchange and
Apology by Plato Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Apology by Plato - Essay Example Socrates on page three denies practicing this type of philosophy, although he does not want to disrespect its practitioners. 2) â€Å"Socrates makes the worse argument into the stronger argument†(Apology,2). Socrates maintains that men of position who are examined by â€Å"young men of the richer classes†(6) who have learned his methods are humiliated. Their response is to slander Socrates: â€Å"Those who are examined by them [the young men] instead of being angry with themselves are angry with me. This confounded Socrates!†¦--and then if somebody asks them, why, what evil does he practice or teach? They do not know†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (6). In order to save face, these men accuse Socrates of sophistry.(6). 3) Socrates is guilty of corrupting the young. I will summarize Socrates’ examination of Meletus concerning this accusation: The laws improve the youth. All of the judges know the laws. Therefore, all the judges improve the youth. All Athenians improve the youth, according to Meletus. Socrates is an Athenian. But, according to Meletus, Socrates alone is their corrupter. This is an invalid argument. If all Athenians improve the youth, and Socrates is an Athenian, then he should also improve the youth. I understand the second argument as follows: It is better to live among good citizens, because they do good. Everyone wants to be treated well. Socrates corrupts the youth intentionally, turning them bad. Bad people do evil. Therefore, Socrates wants to be treated badly. (Apology,7-9). â€Å"But either I do not corrupt them†says Socrates,†or I corrupt them unintentionally†¦If my offence is unintentional, the law has no cognizance of unintentional offenses†(Apology, 9). 4) Socrates does not believe in the gods of the city. Socrates out-argues Meletus on this accusation: M: â€Å"you are a complete atheist†S: â€Å"Do you mean that I do not believe in the godhead of the sun or moon†¦Ã¢â‚¬ M: â€Å"I assure you, judges, that he does not believe in them; for he says that the sun is stone and the moon earth†S: â€Å"you have but a bad opinion of the judges, if you fancy them ignorant to such a degree as not to know that those doctrines are found in the books of Anaxogoras†(Apology,9). The argument continues: S: â€Å"can a man believe in spiritual and divine agencies, and not in spirits or demigods?†M: â€Å"He cannot†S: â€Å"You swear in the indictment that I teach and believe in divine or spiritual agencies†¦but if I believe in divine beings, I must believe in spirits or demigods;--is that not true?†M: â€Å"Yes, that is true†(Apology,10). On the first charge, that of Socrates practicing natural philosophy, I would find not guilty. Socrates is falsely characterized in Aristophanes’ play. He is falsely accused by Meletus of believing that the sun is stone, etc. Meletus did not bother to get his facts straight. The natural philosophers at that time were trying to explain phenomena in terms of quantities that could be studied, i.e.: Anaximenes’ theory that â€Å"all things were made of air through expansion and condensation†(http://www.academic.mu/phil/jonesj/). This type of early scientific inquiry was seen by those in power as a threat to the theocracy. The belief that the gods ruled the earth, and that the politicians could trace their lineage to the gods was a stabilizing force in society. Socrates maintains that God and the gods are wise, and that his actions are dictated by his belief in them. On the second charge, that Socrates makes the worse argument into the stronger argument, I would find not guilty. Socrates does not practice sophistry, which is a form of argument used for persuasion. The Sophists used this form of
Thursday, August 22, 2019
Scientific method Essay Example for Free
Scientific method Essay Do we start thinking of some type of formal process that will answer all our scientific questions or problems. When I was in school many years ago, we were taught that scientists go through a series of steps to find a solution to a problem or find evidence to support or disprove a theory. It all seemed rather cold, and formal. Going back to school, school has taught me that science has undergone significant changes and has moved away from the rigidity of a fixed series of steps in what was formerly called the scientific method. The Scientific Method Geophysicists opposed his suggestion that the continents glide across the ocean floor, asserting that the ocean floor did not contain adequate power to hold the continents and moreover considerable frictional opposition would transpire (Nelson, 2003). In the 1950s and in the 1960s, reports of the Planets magnetic field and in what way it varied across time, a study known as, presented different support that would confirm that the continents do definitely move (Nelson, 2003). The method by which an expert discovers clarification to an occurrence is named the scientific method. Tracing the Scientific Method After the experiment, any findings should be analyzed to decide whether the hypothesis was correct, incorrect, or somewhere in-between. In this experiment, which was reported in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (Yamauchi et al, 2010), the researchers sought to find out what relationship, if any, coffee had upon the development of diabetes. Previous studies had indicated that coffee might be of use to ward off the development of diabetes in humans. The scientists behind this experiment wanted to investigate this possibility in a more focused study than had been previously done.: Scientific Research
Wednesday, August 21, 2019
Examining Islam In Malaysia Religion Essay
Examining Islam In Malaysia Religion Essay Malaysia is modern Muslim country where more than half of its 26 million people have embrace Islam as their religion. Halal is an Islamic religious guide to how Muslims should live their lives from the way their food is prepared to how their personal and social relationships are conducted. In Malaysia Halal is a concept accepted by all, by both Muslims and non- Muslims. The majority of businesses in Malaysia sells products or offer services that are Halal endorsed. The Malaysia Halal Certification is globally respected. In our ever progressive world, it has become increasingly challenging for Muslims to determine whether the food or drinks they consume are religiously acceptable or Halal. This Halal and non-Halal problem is not only limited to food and beverage but also to other products and services. For Muslims living in a totally Islamic country like Saudi Arabia, the Halal question is not an issue at all. For those living in a multiracial Muslim country like Malaysia, although Halal food or services are readily available and easy to obtain, there is a need for the authority to monitor and enforce standards to ensure Halalness particularly when the products or services are made, sold, prepared or provided by non-Muslims. However, the real challenge is for Muslims living in a country whose population is predominantly non-Muslims. Extra diligence is needed for these Muslims to enjoy everything Halal. Most striking is that there are approximately 1.9 billion Muslims in the world who are consumers of Halal foods. As such the Halal food market is the largest food market in the world. Among the Halal importing countries are those which have one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, have the fastest growing middle classes in the world, import a significant proportion of their food needs and have the highest rates of population growth in the world. Malaysia will be developed International Halal Food Hub for monitoring and standardization the Halal food product. The Halal certification will be gives if the food ingredients are Halal. This certification of Malaysia Halal standard are also will be strengthened and aggressively promoted internationally. HALAL BEEF PRODUCT Halal products are fast gaining worldwide recognition as a new benchmark for safety and quality assurance. Products that are produced with Halal certification are readily acceptable by Muslim consumers as well as consumers from other religions. This acceptance is due to the wholesomeness concept of Halal, which covers not only the Shariah requirement, but also the hygiene, sanitation and safety aspects. Halal certification is a powerful marketing tool for both the Muslim and non-Muslim producers, as there are an increasing awareness on the part of Muslim consumers all over the world on their obligation to consume Halal food. The Arabic word(Halal) means lawful or permitted. In the Holy Quran, Allah commands Muslims and all of mankind to eat of the Halal things. Basically, Allah Al Mighty knows what is best for us to eat. And normally all the Halal food are very clean and safe from any disease. But for non-Halal food, you always can find some interesting facts relating to sickness. This following products are definitely Halal such as milk (from cows, sheep, camels, and goats), honey, fish, plants which are not intoxicant, fresh or dried fruits, legumes nuts like peanut, cashew nuts, hazel nuts, walnut, grain such as wheat, rice, rye, barley, and oat. Basically, all food is Halal except meat from swine such as pork, ham, pork-based products and by-products such as sausages and gelatin. Animals improperly slaughtered or already dead before slaughtering is due to take place. Animals killed in the name of anyone other than Allah (for example, by anyone other than a Jew, Christian or Muslim, or as part of a pagan sacrifice), intoxicants, blood and blood by-products, foods contaminated with any of the above products. Most of the desserts use non-Halal Gelatin that comes from pigs. Focus about the beef, they are only Halal if they are slaughtered according to Islamic Law. The procedures that we must do at the beef are the animal must be slaughtered by a Muslim. The animal also should be put down on the ground or held it if it is small. The throat of the animal must be sliced with a very sharp knife to make sure that the 3 main blood vessels are cut. While cutting the throat of the animal (without severing it), the person must pronounce the name of Allah or recite a blessing which contains the name of Allah, such as Bismillahirahmannirrahim, Allah-u-Akbar. Islam prohibits the meat of animals that are slaughtered without reciting the name of Allah and those that are slaughtered whilst pronouncing a name other than Allah. Mentioning the name of Allah during slaughter is actually a way of seeking permission from God for taking the life of the animal for the sole purpose of sustenance. The prohibition to recite a name other than Allah during slaughter acts as a safe guard to a Muslims faith. Islam is a religion which promotes monotheism and rejects any form of polytheism. Mentioning a name other than Allah is regarded as a polytheistic act, thus such act is not permissible during slaughter. For more information, they lead the cow into an area, line its head up with where the piston comes out, and BAM! The cow is unconscious, hung by its ankles, and sent to where the slaughter takes place. Regarding poultry, a common practice is to render them unconscious by electrocuting them before slaughter. Slaughtering is to be done from the front of the neck, between the throat and the head of the breast bone (Libba). The throat/oesophagus (Mirree), windpipe/trachea (Halkoom) and the two jugular veins (Wadijan) are cut in the neck without severing the spinal cord. This cut severed the arteries to the brain of the animal, thus depriving the brain of blood supply. As a result, the brain loses consciousness due to insufficient oxygen. This renders the animal unconscious, causing the animal the least amount of pain. By contrast, the Islamic method of slaughtering does not allow for animals to be killed in front of other animals. It requires an extremely sharp blade and the swift incision of the major veins in the neck to facilitate in a painless, quick blood loss and death. Before the slaughter takes place, the animal is examined for overall health. If the animal is deemed unhealthy, it cannot be slaughtered for food. The animal is slaughtered in such a way that most of the blood exits the body. The goal is to slaughter the animal, limiting the amount of pain the animal will endure. DEPARTMENT OF ISLAMIC DEVELOPMENT MALAYSIA (JAKIM) HISTORY In 1968, the Conference of Rulers Pakistan has decided that the need for a body to mobilize efforts for development and advancement of the Muslims in Malaysia, in line with Malaysias status as an Islamic country that has strong international and world attention. Recognizing this, a secretariat to the National Council of Religious Affairs was established, to maintain the purity of faith and the teachings of Islam. Secretariat was subsequently developed as the Religious Department of the Prime Minister who was later promoted again to the Islamic Affairs Department (BAHEIS). On January 1, 1997, in line with the development and progress of Islam in the country has stabilized, the Department of Islamic Development Malaysia (JAKIM) is established by the Malaysian government took power and the role (BAHEIS). FUNCTION OF JAKIM Formulation and standardization of Islamic law Formulate, review and amend laws for the standardization of Islamic states. Streamline and standardize the Islamic law throughout Pakistan. Act enacts Islamic law and the federal territories. Enforcement of Islamic law states Coordinating the implementation and compliance ruling. Coordination in the administration of Islam Streamline the administration of Islamic affairs and the states. Build a strong Islamic thought among Muslims based on the holding of the Sunnah Wal Jamaah. Produce cadres Islamic preachers and scholars through training in training institutions of Islam. Establishing benchmarks and practices of Islam through the formulation of service standards Hadhari Referral centers and advisory services relating to Islam government and private agencies. Increasing collaboration with the missionary network non-governmental bodies at national and international Strengthening survival of Muslims in Sabah and Sarawak in educational, missionary and social-economic Strengthening unity among Muslims to the Ummah. To empower the non-Muslim, indigenous peoples and minority groups. Expand the program and plans Islamic through radio and television stations. Expanding the program elements of Islamic values and personality to deal with social ills. Coordination and development of Islamic education Developing a team of experts in various fields of Islamic knowledge. Make Malaysia a hub for higher education and research al-Quran and al-hadith in regional and international levels. Develop and coordinate the management of the state religious school of Islamic education and Islamic schools. Develop and coordinate programs and classes al-Quran mass Ain (Kafa) in the current national education policy. Strengthening the role of institutions and programs prosperity mosque as a center of science and civilization of the community development that involves all walks of life. WHY ISLAM FORBIDS PORK Pork is the most commonly eaten forms of meat around the world, there are over 100 million metric tons of pork is consumed throughout the world. And pork can be served in different forms such as cooked or form of sausages. However, we know that Islam not eating pork but what is the reason they forbids pork. So now, we go to discuss about it. We know that food and drink have a direct effect on our health. That is why Islam prevents to unhealthy food. Because they believe both physical and moral health are equally important for a healthy society. Therefore, the abstention from eating pork is one of the steps taken by Islam to practice hygiene and to attain purity of soul. To cultivate our inner faculties, Islam insists upon the cleanliness of body and the purification of soul through Salaat (prayers), Zikr (remembrance of Allah) and other devotional duties. Islam teaches us how to attain the virtues and how to give up bad habits because both good and bad grow in the man according to his upbringing, education and environment. A human being has natural desires: food, sleep and sex being the three primary ones. He has also natural emotions: sorrow, happiness, love, fear, disgust and avarice etc. Islam doesnt recommend the complete abrogation of these impulses but offers a method of controlling them through religious education and discipline. The prohibition of eating pork in Islam is relevant in this context. There is a saying in English that a man becomes what he eats. According to physicians and medical experts, pork is a harmful diet. Consumption of swine-flesh creates lowliness in character and destroys moral and spiritual faculties in a man. Despite Islam allows Muslims to eat clean thing. However, in the consumption of meat, Muslims are required to be selective and distinguish the Halal foods. Dr. E. Kazim. M.D, in his article Medical aspects of forbidden foods in Islam (July 1981 issue of Muslim Journal) has described diseases carried or caused by the flesh of swine. He writes: The pig is a scavenger. It is an omnivorous animal. It eats everything. There are many diseases carried from swine to man, particularly parasite infestations. Lately extensive research has been focused on senility-old age is characterized by hardening of inner lining of the blood vessels of the heart, brain etc. a process called atherosclerosis. When a clot forms, it results in coronary thrombosis or a heart attack, cerebral thrombosis or stroke. Dr. Glen Shepherd wrote the following on the dangers of eating pork in Washington Post (31 May 1952): One in six people in USA and Canada have germs in their muscles trichinosis 8 from eating pork infected with trichina worms. Many people who are infected show no symptoms. Most of those, who do have, recover slowly. Some die; some are reduced to permanent invalids. All were careless pork caters. He continued: No one is immune from the disease and there is no cure. Neither antibiotics nor drugs or vaccines affect these tiny deadly worms. Preventing infection is the real answer. After reading the statement of Dr. Shepherd, one can realize that there is no real guarantee of safety when eating pork that one would not be affected by trichina worm. That is why modern doctors advise three prohibitions during illness: no liquor, no pork and no smoking. At the end we know that Muslim forbids pork because they respect their religion. They believe their GOD will care for them. But if they are under famine, they still can eat pork to survive, its no sin. CONCLUSION At the end, we found that Halal food have many benefits and thats why many people either Muslim or non Muslims, would like to choose Halal food. Halal meat is beneficial for nutrition and health. Only healthy animals can be slaughtered. It is done by Muslims who are trusted and experienced. The meat itself will have no blood clots within the veins-giving it a longer shelf life. Animals will be treated with mercy and respect and will be blessed with the name of God (Allah) prior to slaughter. Ethnic and religious considerations are not the only reasons why consumers are choosing kosher- and Halal-certified foods. Many perceive the extra supervision implicit in the certified foods assures higher quality and safer food products. According to Packaged Facts report, Market Trend: Kosher- and Halal-Certified Foods in the US, resonates with a similar report from Mintel released earlier this year, which concluded that the majority of US consumers who buy kosher foods do so for perceived quality and safety reasons, rather than for religious ones, and there is no reason to assume things are any different in Australia and New Zealand. They study found that three in five people who buy kosher food do so because they perceive it to be better quality, Halal food also have a lot of nutrition and they feel safe to eat it, and it free from any disease other that, availability to get Halal food is easier. The two most popular markets for Halal food are South-East Asia and the Middle East. By going through the Halal certification process, food processors will open up the possibility of additional clientele and often they will not even have to make changes to their product to get such certification. There are four steps in processing of Halal food that is: application, submission, processing certification and post certification. And whats the important in the steps of processing is certification attests that a product/service is suitable for Muslims and finished products which adhere to Halal manufacturing procedures carry a Halal symbol on the label. We know that all equipment used in the production of Halal foods must be free from contamination with non-Halal items and comply with the necessary hygiene and sanitation requirements. All ingredients must all be Halal as well. Favorable perceptions Many consumers believe that Halal and kosher food is produced under stricter supervision than is provided by government inspection and for many consumers the Halal and kosher symbols guarantee that the food is free of contaminants or disease and no preservatives added. The research indicated that more than half of consumers who purchased kosher products did so because they considered them to be safer than products not certified as kosher. Mintels research has shown that kosher was the most frequently used claim on food and drink products launched in the US in 2008 which, as the Jewish population is not increasing, suggests that the growing interest may be more to do with food safety than religion. Aside from religious requirements, kosher and Halal supervision adds another level of quality control in responding to the needs of the discerning consumer. Simply by adhering to the kosher and Halal requirements and having foods certified, processors will broaden their market.
Tuesday, August 20, 2019
Strategy vs Structure in Strategic Management
Strategy vs Structure in Strategic Management Strategic analysis: Strategy versus Structure for International Competitiveness Introduction The strategy structure relationship, that was previously considered reciprocal, is now recognized as being considerably more complex, and there is some agreement that structure can and does have a profound impact on strategy through its direct effect on the strategic decision making process (Bourgeois Astley, 1979; Burgelman, 1983; Fredrickson, 1986). In understanding the role of strategy and structure in international business, one must understand that what has essentially changed is the context within which business operations take place. The well developed and complex associations between structure and strategy in classical studies of firms are also central to research in international business, but the nature of business has changed, and so have the relationships. As such, issues have arisen over the best way for international firms, operating in global marketplaces, to best align their strategy and structure to serve numerous distinct markets, whilst maintaining a global identi ty. This paper looks at the development of business strategy and structure over time, highlighting how the relationships have changed, the implications for organisational behaviour, and how firms can alter their behaviour to best gain competitive advantage in international markets. International Strategies Business strategy refers to how firms compete in an industry or market (Varadarajan and Clark 1994; Walker and Ruekert 1987). The two historically dominant frameworks of business strategy are the Miles and Snow (1978) model, which focuses on intended rate of product-market change, and the Porter (1980) model, which focuses on customers and competitors. Miles and Snow (1978) developed a comprehensive framework that addresses the alternative ways that organisations define and approach their product-market domains and construct structures and processes to achieve competitive advantage in those domains. Miles and Snow identify four archetypes of how firms address these issues: â€Å"prospectors†continuously attempt to locate and exploit new product and market opportunities, â€Å"defenders†attempt to seal off a portion of the total market to create a stable set of products and customers, â€Å"analyzers†occupy an intermediate position by cautiously following prosp ectors into new product-market domains while protecting a stable set of products and customers, and â€Å"reactors†do not have a consistent response to the entrepreneurial problem. In contrast, Porter (1980) proposes that business strategy should be viewed as a product of how the firm creates customer value compared with its competitors, and how it defines its scope of market coverage. Walker and Ruekert (1987) observed that though each of these strategy typologies has inherent strengths, i.e., Porters external focus and Miles and Snows internal focus, each is also limited. To address this, Walker and Ruekert proposed a hybrid model that synthesizes the two foci in a typology that consists of prospectors, low-cost defenders, and differentiated defenders. However, although Walker and Ruekert’s article has been frequently cited in the marketing and management literature, the distinctions between low-cost defenders and differentiated defenders have only recently been supported in empirical analysis (Slater and Olson, 2001). Following on from these initial developments, over the last few years researchers have quite successfully addressed and explicated the various forms of international strategy, and these forms are generally well accepted in the literature. There is now considerable agreement among international business scholars that most firms embarking upon or undertaking international business operations are cognizant of the twin pressures of global integration and local responsiveness. To this end, the integration-responsiveness framework suggested by Prahalad and Doz (1987) has provided a valuable theoretical tool to better understand international strategic behaviours of firms. More recently, we have seen many successful applications of globally integrated strategies (Parente, 2003; Parente Kotabe, 2003). According to Yip (2003), global companies have developed more sophisticated and flexible versions of international strategies and organisational processes, which successfully embraced globaliz ation. Organisational Structures Organisational structure refers to an organisation’s internal pattern of relationships (Finley, 2000). Structure has been characterized by a number of dimensions and illustrated by using a variety of types, like functional or divisional (Fredrickson 1986), however, there are three dimensions of structure: centralization, formalization, and complexity, which have received more attention than any others (Fry, 1982; Fry Slocum, 1984). Each of these dimensions appears to have great implications for strategy and strategic decision making, and are dominant characteristics of the well known structural types (Fredrickson, 1986). Centralization refers to the degree to which the right to make decisions and evaluate activities is concentrated (Fry Slocum, 1984; Hall, 1977). A high level of centralization is the most obvious way to control and coordinate organisation decision making, but places significant cognitive demands on those managers who retain authority (Fredrickson, 1986). Min tzberg (1979) has discussed this issue by suggesting that an individual does not have the cognitive capacity or information that is needed to understand all the decisions that face a complex organisation. The degree of formalization specifies the extent to which an organisation uses rules and procedures to prescribe behaviour (Hage Aiken, 1969; Hall, 1977). Therefore, formalization has significant consequences for organisational members because it specifies how, where, and by whom tasks are to be performed (Fredrickson, 1986). A high level of formalization has the benefit of eliminating role ambiguity, but it also limits members’ decision making discretion. Complexity refers to the condition of being composed of many, usually, though not necessarily, interrelated parts. Hall (1977) suggests that there are three sources of complexity: horizontal and vertical differentiation, and spatial dispersion. Therefore, an organisation that simultaneously has numerous levels, broad spans of control, and multiple geographic locations would be considered as highly complex (Fredrickson, 1986). The Interaction Between Strategy and Structure Whilst strategy and structure have been studied in isolation for a great many years, and are now relatively well understood, what is less understood is the international role of organisational structure and its relationship with international strategy (Finley, 2000). International strategies are the forms and types of actions firms follow to fulfil their long term business objectives. Organisations involved in international business activities usually have two major forces impinging on them. One is the need to standardise products on a global basis, and the other is to respond to local country or local market demands. International strategies may be characterized in different ways, and the integration-responsiveness framework developed by Prahalad and Doz (1987) has extended the conceptualization of industry pressures to incorporate generic strategic responses. The framework suggests that organisations develop their strategies and structures based on the emphasis they place on either one or both forces. At the most basic level, organisational structures are established to coordinate work that has been divided into smaller tasks. Mintzberg (1981, p. 104) noted, â€Å"How that coordination is achievedby whom and with whatdictates what the organisation will look like.†Walker and Ruekert (1987) further hypothesized that firms that follow different generic business strategies adopt different structural designs. Vorhies and Morgan (2003) studied the relationships among marketing organisation structure, business strategy, and performance in the trucking industry. Both of these studies demonstrated that different marketing organisation characteristics are more or less appropriate for different business strategies. The forms of structures typically defined by formalization, centralization, and specialization, which as Walker and Ruekert (1987 p. 27) noted â€Å"seem particularly important in shaping an organisation’s or departments performance†, are also applicable in d ifferent ways to different strategies and geographic factors. For example, in studying the development of America’s dominant industrial organisations, Chandler (1962) observed that major increases in unit volume, geographic dispersion, and vertical and horizontal integration were eventually followed by changes in structural form. Several studies following Chandler’s work confirmed an association between these two variables, in that structure generally followed strategy (Fouraker Stopford, 1968; Rumelt, 1974). In spite of the wide spread acceptance of the structure follows strategy relationship, there is a significant body of literature that suggests that structure has a significant and major effect on strategy (Fredrickson, 1986). Bower, for example, characterized structure broadly as the context within which decisions are made, and observed that â€Å"structure may motivate or impede strategic activity†(1970, p. 67). This view is also supported by other researchers who contend that structure constrains, or in another set of circumstances, enables, strategic choice (Bobbitt Ford, 1980; Duncan, 1979; Hedberg, Nystrom Starbuck, 1976). To understand why it is logical for strategic action to be affected by structure, one must understand the relationship between decision making and structure (Fredrickson, 1986). March and Simon (1958) addressed this critical aspect of the relationship by suggesting that an organisation’s structure imposes boundaries of rationality that accommodate members’ cognitive limitations. By delimiting responsibilities and communication channels, structure allows organisations to achieve organisationally rational outcomes despite their cognitive limitations (Simon, 1976). Structure also allows management to control the decision making environment and facilitate the processing of information (Fredrickson, 1986). The structure-strategy relationship is well explained by Bower when he states that â€Å"when management chooses a particular organisational form, it is providing not only a framework for current operations but also the channels along which strategic information will flow †(1970, p. 287). As a result, the relationships between business strategy and organisational structure become massively complex when considered in the international context, and thus require organisations to strategically examine their fundamental behaviours in order to best align their strategy and structure, without becoming lost in the complexity. Strategic Organisational Behaviour Organisational behaviour refers to organisational members’ work-related activities (Ouchi 1977; Robbins 2002) and, according to Snell (1992), management attempts to influence organisational behaviour through the use of control systems. Control is any process that helps align employees actions with the firm’s interests (Snell 1992; Tannenbaum 1968). Control theory (Snell 1992) identifies three major categories of control mechanisms: behavioural control (e.g., establishing and monitoring of sets of actions), output control (e.g., goal attainment measures), and input control (e.g., training). When applied within an organisational context, control theory posits that management attempts to direct employee behaviour to enhance the probability of desired outcomes. As Snell notes (p. 292), â€Å"Advocates of the behavioural perspective posit that different strategies require different behaviours.†Snell also notes that this view of the link between strategy and behaviour is useful because it provides a clear explanation of why behaviour should be linked to strategy and because it posits a testable set of behaviours. As a result, strategic behaviours have the potential to create superior performance through enhancing the execution of business strategy and identifying the relevant organisational structure (Slater and Narver 1995). There are four behaviours which are all claimed to offer potential competitive advantage to firms. These are customer-oriented behaviours (Deshpandà ©, Farley, and Webster 1993), competitor-oriented behaviours (Armstrong and Collopy 1996), innovation-oriented behaviours (Hurley and Hult 1998), and internal/cost-oriented behaviours (Porter 1980). It is important to understand that these strategic behaviours are not mutually exclusive and that it is common for firms to engage in multiple sets of behaviours simultaneously (Slater and Narver 1995). Furthermore, different combinations of emphases will likely prove more or less beneficial for firms that adopt different business strategies. Customer-Oriented Behaviours Firms with a strong customer orientation pursue competitive advantage by placing the highest priority on the creation and maintenance of customer value. As such, these firms engage in the organisation wide development of and responsiveness to information about the expressed and unexpressed needs of both current and potential customers (Deshpandà ©, Farley, and Webster 1993). Because of the constantly refined market-sensing and customer-relating capabilities of the customer-oriented firm, it should develop strategies and a structure to anticipate customer need evolution and to respond through the development of new customer value-focused capabilities and the addition of valuable products and services (Day 1994). Competitor-Oriented Behaviours A different perspective on competitive advantage is simply to beat the competition (Day 1994). This orientation places a priority on the in-depth assessment of a set of targeted competitors, focusing on targeted competitors goals, strategies, offerings, resources, and capabilities (Porter 1980) and on the organisation wide dissemination of the information generated from this assessment. The result is that managers develop competitor-oriented objectives rather than economic or customer-oriented objectives (Armstrong and Collopy 1996). The behavioural goal of the firm is to match, if not exceed, competitors strengths, both in strategy and structure. Innovation-Oriented Behaviours Another perspective is that firms build and renew competitive advantage through radical or discontinuous innovations. An innovation orientation indicates that the firm not only is open to new ideas but also proactively pursues these ideas (Hurley and Hult 1998) in both its technical and administrative domains An innovation orientation encourages risk taking and enhances the likelihood of developing radically new products. March (1991) argues that firms must be aware of the possibility that an innovation orientation may not allow for the follow-through that is necessary to reap the benefits of earlier innovations fully, unless their strategy and structure are aligned with both the generation and utilisation of innovation. Internal/Cost-Oriented Behaviours Porter (1980) argues that there are two basic sources of competitive advantage. The first is the differentiation advantage that a firm derives from the customer-, competitor-, or innovation-oriented behaviours. The second is the cost advantage that a firm derives from internal orientation and structure, with internally oriented firms pursuing efficiency in all parts of their value chain (Porter 1985). They attempt to reduce costs in primary activities, such as logistics, operations, and sales and marketing, and also attempt to reduce costs in support activities, such as procurement, research and development, and administrative functions. These firms pursue operational excellence, through their strategy and structure, that they can translate into higher sales through lower prices or higher margins. Whereas experimentation is the hallmark of firms with an innovation orientation, exploitation is the hallmark of internally oriented firms (March 1991). Conclusion International business has produced some incredibly competitive and complicated markets, with numerous potential problems for organisations, but also numerous opportunities for firms that can best adapt to their marketplace. However, such is the level of complexity in these markets, that firms who try to engineer specific, rigid strategies and structures will likely find themselves left behind by the latest shift in the market or technology. As a result, firms competing in international markets would be best advised to focus on the organisational behaviour, or behaviours, that best match their capabilities, and let these behaviours drive their strategy and structure to provide the most sustainable competitive advantage possible. Unfortunately, there is currently a paucity of available academic evidence on the most relevant behaviours for firms to best secure competitive advantage under the myriad market conditions, and this should be a key area for future research, as it may soon bec ome a strategic issue of significant importance. Equally, organisational behaviour as a field of study is vastly complex, with ongoing debates between theorists around organistic versus mechanistic structures, the role of teams, and the best styles of leadership needed in an organisation. In particular, organisational behaviour tends to suggest that organistic structures will be required in uncertain, rapidly changing markets, however mechanistic structures will be required in markets where the pace of technological developments is slower (Burns and Stalker, 1961). Thus, more research is needed into the consequences of an organisation in a relatively fast moving market making strategic organisational behaviour choices which would be better facilitated by a more hierarchical, mechanistic structure. Similar research would be recommended into the roles of leaders, and teams within organisations, in implementing and driving these behaviours forward. However, regardless of the need for further research, it is clear that firms can no longer merely define a strategy, focus strongly on it, and expect their strategic focus to guarantee success. Likewise, in the international business world, firms should no longer focus on having a well defined structure, regardless of whether it is organistic or mechanistic. Instead, a key recommendation of the strategic organisational behaviour approach is that firms should concentrate on best aligning themselves to the most appropriate behaviour for their industry. In manufacturing, this is likely to be more internal, or cost oriented, in technology it will tend to be primarily innovation oriented and in professional services a strong customer, or client, orientation would be best. However, it is vital that firms do not neglect the other behaviours: those that are not their primary focus, as these remain important, and can help maintain a balance approach to strategy and structure, offering sustained competitive advantage in international markets. References Armstrong, J. S. and Collopy, F. 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